REESE    LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Received 
Accessions  No.  r^^-^^X     Shelf  No 


Muscat  of  Alexandria  Raisin  Grape,  First  Crop.    One-half  Natural  Size. 


THE  RAISIN  INDUSTRY. 


A  PRACTICAL   TREATISE 


ON    THE 


RAISIN  GRAPES, 


THEIR  HISTORY.  CULTURE  AND  CURING. 


BY    GUSTAV   EISEN 


SAN   FRANCISCO  : 

H.   f5,   CROCKER  &  COMPANY,   STATIONERS  AND   PRINTERS. 

1890. 


£5 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1890,  by 

GUSTAV  ElvSEN, 
in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


etc 


late  years  the  raisin  industry  has  been  prominently  before  the 
horticulturists  of  California.  Many  people  now  make  their  living  and 
acquire  wealth  by  the  cultivation  of  the  raisin  grapes,  and  many  are  now 
studying  the  methods  of  cultivation,  pruning,  curing  and  packing  while  wait- 
ing for  their  vines  to  bear.  The  literature  of  the  raisin  industry  is  a  very 
scant  one,  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  notices  in  works  of  travel,  or  in 
treatises  on  general  fruit  culture,  we  find  not  a  single  book  in  which  this 
important  and  interesting  industry  is  made  the  special  subject  of  study  and 
discussion.  A  book  on  the  raisin  industry  may,  therefore,  be  considered 
timely.  I  have  endeavored  to  so  write  it  that  it  would  contain  something  j 
of  interest  to  all  those  connected  with  the  growing  and  curing  of  the  raisin  ^ 
grapes,  to  those  who  have  already  succeeded  in  building  up  fame  and 
fortune,  as  well  as  to  those  who  have  just  begun  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine,  and  who  have  as  yet  only  realized  the  pleasures,  but  not  the  profits, 
of  the  industry.  The  historical  part  of  the  book  will  principally  interest 
the  former ;  for  the  latter  the  practical  part  on  cultivation,  pruning,  curing 
and  packing  is  intended. 

As  our  climate  and  other  conditions  differ  from  those  of  any  other  country  / 
in  the  world,  so  must  our  m«lthodsf:of>  cultivation  and  curing  differ  from 
those  practiced  elsewhere.  Foreign  methods,  while  interesting  and,  in 
some  respects,  of  great  importance  to  us,  had  to  be  greatly  modified  and 
improved  upon  before  our  growers  succeeded  in  producing  raisins  equaling 
the  best  from  the  raisin  districts  of  the  Old  World.  It  has  cost  years  of 
experimenting  and  study  to  attain  success,  as  well  as  much  money  and  dis- 
appointment to  many  whohad^nothingjto guide  them ^^n^^^comm^ncod. 

These  processes~T5y~which  success  was  achieved  can  now  become  the 
property  of  all,  and  a  safe  guide  to  even  the  most  inexperienced  beginners. 
The  methods  advocated  here  are  the  result  of  practical  experience  of  the 
author,  as  well  as  of  the  most  successful  raisin-growers  of  this  State. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  of  our  readers  who  now  study  the  raisin  indus- 
try at  a  distance,  but  whose  steps  may  in  the  future  be  directed  to  this 
Coast,  a  descriptive  tour  through  the  raisin  districts  of  our  State  has 
been  added  in  order  that  they  may  see  what  our  country  is  like, — the 
country  of  the  raisin  and  the  fig;  the  country  of  almonds,  olives,  oranges 
and  prunes;  the  country  where  health,  profit  and  enjoyment  are  more  than 
anywhere  else  derived  from  horticultural  pursuits.  It  is  for  these  prospective 
readers,  that  the  short  biographical  sketches  of  our  principal  raisin-men  are 
intended, — short  records  of  the  pioneers  of  the  raisin  industry, — men  who 
have  broken  the  way  which  is  now  easy  to  travel,  and  through  whose  ex- 
perience and  perseverance  others  are  now  being  benefited. 

GUSTAV  EISEN. 
SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAI,.,  OCTOBER,  1890. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

HISTORICAL 5 

Raisins 5 

The  Currant 6 

Muscatels 7 

Dehesa  Raisins 7 

Lexias  or  Lye-dipped  Raisins 9 

Various  Kinds  of  Raisins 10 

Muscatels ;  Currants ;  Belvideres ;  Black  Smyrnas  ;  California  Malagas  ;  California 

Sun-dried  Sultanas ;  Seedless  Muscatels ;  Thompson  Seedless ;  Dried  Grapes ; 
Lexias ;  California  Dipped  ;  Smyrnas ;  Faros ;  Huascos. 

RAISIN  DISTRICTS 10 

Foreign  Districts 10 

Raisins  in  Ancient  Times 10 

Modern  Raisin  Districts    1 1 

The  Malaga  District 12 

Extent  and  Age  ;  Climate  ;  Soil ;  Location  of  the  Vineyard ;  Varieties  of  Grapes ; 

Characteristics  of  the  Raisins  ;  Yield  of  Grapes ;  Distances  of  the  Vines ;  Prun- 
ing ;  Manuring  and  Fertilizing ;  Drying  Floors  or  Sequeros ;  Drying  and  Curing ; 
Packing;  Labor. 

Valencia  and  Denia 15 

Extent  of  the  District ;  Soils  and  Appearance  of  the  District ;  Climate  ;  Irrigation  ; 

Quality  of  the  Raisins ;  Planting  and  Care  ;  Dipping  and  Scalding ;  Drying  and 
Curing ;  Packing  and  Disposing  of  the  Crop ;  Export  and  Production. 

Corinth  and  Currants 22 

Historical  and  Geographical  Notes  ;  Characteristics  and  Quality ;  Soil  and  Irrigation  ; 

Preparation  of  the  Land ;  Distances  of  the  Currant  Vines ;  Care  of  Cuttings, 
Planting  and  Grafting ;  Pruning  the  Vines ;  Care  of  the  Vineyard ;  Ringing  the 
Branches ;  Drying  and  Curing ;  Cost  of  Currant  Vineyards  in  Greece ;  Con- 
sumption and  Production.  ^ 

Smyrna  Raisins 30 

Districts  in  Smyrna ;  Climate  ;  Care  of  the  Vines ;    Dipping,  Drying  and  Curing ; 

Production  and  Export ;  Cost  of  Vineyards  in  Smyrna  ;  Other  Varieties  of 
Raisins. 

Italy  and  Italian  Raisins 36 

Lipari  and  Belvidere ;  Pantellaria  ;  Calabria. 

Chile  and  Huasco  Raisins 36 

Characteristics  ;  Location  ;  Varieties ;  Soils ;  Climate ;  Irrigation  ;  The  Vineyard ; 

Drying  and  Curing. 

California  Raisin  Districts 38 

A  General  Review 38 

Early  History;  Later  Planting ;  Acreage  and  Crops. 

Yolo  and  Solano 40 

Soil  and  Climate  ;  The  Vineyard ;  The  Crop. 

Northern  California 43 

General  Remarks;  Placer  County;  Yuba  County;  Sutler  County;  Colusa  County; 

Butte  County;  Tehama  County;  Shasta  County. 

Fresno,  Merced,  Tulare  and  Kern 44 

Extent  and  Location ;  Soils  and  Climate ;  Irrigation  ;  The  Vineyard ;  Pruning  and 

Other  Operations;  The  Crop. 


11  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

San  Bernardino  County 48 

Location  and  Acreage  ;  Climate;  Irrigation;  Soils;  The  Vineyard  ;  The  Crop;  The 

Profits  and  Other  Items. 

Orange  County  and  Santa  Ana 52 

General  Remarks ;  Location  ;  Climate ;  Soils  and  Ripening  ;  The  Vineyard  ;  The 

Crop  and  its  Curing ;  Yield  and  Profits. 

San  Diego  and  El  Cajon 55 

Location  and  Acreage  ;  Climate  and  Rainfall ;   Soils ;  The  Vines  and  the  Vineyard  ; 

The  Crop. 
Other  Raisin  Districts 59 

CLIMATIC  CONDITIONS,  SOILS,  LOCATION  AND  IRRIGATION 60 

Climatic  Conditions  Favorable  and  Unfavorable  to  the  Raisin  Industry  ...     60 

Limits  of  the  Raisin  Districts  ;  Dry  Seasons,  Spring  and  Fall  Rains ;  Winter  Rains  ; 

Frost  in  Spring  and  Winter;  Summer  Temperature;  Winds,  Injurious  and 
Beneficial ;  Fogs  and  Moisture  in  the  Air  ;  Ideal  Conditions  of  Climate. 

Soils 67 

General  Remarks  ;  Malaga ;  Valencia  and  Denia ;  Smyrna  ;  Zante ;  Chile  ;  Fresno  ; 

Other  Soils  in  San  Joaquin  Valley ;  Orange  County ;  Redlands  and  Riverside  ; 
El  Cajon  ;  Subsoils  ;  Hardpan  Soils  ;  Comparative  Value  of  Soils  ;  Alkali  Soils  ; 
Fertilizing. 

Irrigation 77 

Introductory  Notes  ;  the  Necessity  of  Irrigating  the  Raisin  Vines  ;  Health  and  Lon- 
gevity of  Irrigated  Vines ;  The  Bearing  Quality  of  Irrigated  Vines ;  Quality  of 
Irrigated  Grapes  ;  Various  Methods  of  Irrigation  ;  Irrigation  by  Flooding  ;  Irri- 
gation by  Furrowing ;  ;Subirrigation  ;  Seepage  ;  Drainage  The  Influence  of 
Irrigation  on  the  Soil. 

The  Raisin  Grapes 87 

Introductory  Notes  ;    Muscatel  or  Gordo  Blanco  ;   Muscat  of  Alexandria  ;  Huasco 

Muscat ;  Other  Varieties  of  Muscat ;  Seedless  Sultana  ;  Black  Currant ;  Other 
Varieties  of  Currants  ;  Thompson  Seedless ;  Other  Seedless  Grapes ;  Malaga ; 
Feher  Szagos  ;  Other  Raisin  Grapes. 

DISEASES  AND  INSECT  PESTS 93 

Powdery  Mildew  or  Uncinula 93 

General  Notes  ;  Characteristics  ;  History  and  Distribution  ;  Remedies. 

Downy  Mildew  or  Peronospora . .   .. 95 

General  Notes. 

The  Vine  Plague 96 

Characteristics  ;  Nature  and  Cause  ;  Damages  ;  Remedies. 

Leaf-hopper 98 

Characteristics  ;  Damages  ;  Distribution  ;  Remedies. 

Red  Spider • 100 

Characteristics ;  Remedies. 

Caterpillars 100 

Characteristics ;  Damages  ;  Remedies. 

Black-knot 102 

Characteristics ;  Remedies. 

Grasshoppers 102 

General  Notes  ;  Remedies. 

THE  RAISIN  VINEYARD ^ 104 

Planting .^   104 

Distances  for  Muscat  Vines  ;  the  Marking  Out  of  a  Vineyard ;  Relative  Value  of  Cut- 
tings and  Rooted  Vines  ;  The  Making  of  Cuttings  ;  The  Care  of  Cuttings ;  Plant- 
ing Cuttings ;  Care  of  Young  Cuttings  ;  Transporting  Cuttings  to  Distant  Parts  ; 
Rooting  Cuttings ;  Care  of  Rooted  Cuttings  ;  Planting  Rooted  Vines ;  Proper 
Time  for  Planting  ;  Cost  of  Cuttings  and  Rooted  Vines  ;  Winter  Plowing  ;  Plow- 
ing Devices;  Cultivation;  Back-furrowing;  Cross-plowing;  Weed-cutters; 
Cutter-sled ;  Hoeing ;  Time  for  Cultivation. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS.  Hi 

Grafting  the  Muscat  on  Other  Stocks 117 

Time  for  Grafting  Raisin-vines ;    Points  to  be  Observed  in  Grafting ;    Various 

Methods  of  Grafting;  Stocks  and  their  Influence. 

Various  Summer  Work 121 

Sulphuring ;  Tying  Over ;   Covering  the  Vines ;  Thinning  the  Crop  ;   Ringing  the 

Vines  ;  The  Vineyard  labors  of  the  Year. 

Pruning 124 

Winter  Pruning  or  Pruning  Hard  Wood  ;  Bleeding  of  the  Vines ;  Summer  Pruning 

or  Pruning  Green  Wood  ;  Root-pruning ;  Suckering. 

Various  Vineyard  Tools 130 

General  Notes  ;  The  Sheep's-foot ;  The  Planting-bar;  The  Dibble;  Planting  Chains; 

Spades  ;  Hoes  ;  Plows  ;  Cultivators ;  Randel  Disc  Cultivators  ;  The  Ash-trough  ; 
Sulphuring  Cans  and  Bellows  ;  The  Cutter-sled ;  Vineyard  Trucks  ;  Shears. 

DRYING  AND  CURING , 133 

California  Sun-dried  Raisins 133 

Notes  ;    Time  of  Ripening  ;    Signs  of  Maturity  ;   Picking ;    Cleaning ;    Drying  on 

Trays  ;  Turning  ;  Reversing ;  Slanting  the  Trays ;  Elevating  the  Trays  ;  Stack- 
ing Against  Rain  and  Dew ;  Taking  Up  ;  Covering ;  Drying-floors  ;  Dryers  ; 
Sweatboxes ;  Trays  for  Drying. 

California  Lye-dipped  Raisins 149 

General  Notes ;   Dipping  Process  ;   Drying  and  Curing ;   Stemming,  Grading  and 

Packing. 

THE  PACKING-HOUSE 153 

Buildings  and  Mechanical  Appliances 153 

The  Packing-house ;  The  Stemmer  and  Grader ;  The  Sweating-house ;  The  Presses ; . 

Boxes  and  Cartoons  ;    Packing  Frames   and  Packing  Trays ;    Facing-plate  ; 

Scales ;    Labeling  Press  ;   Tables  ;   Bags  and  Bagholders  ;  Trucks ;   Trays  for 

Weighing  ;  Followers ;  Paper  ;  Tin  Boxes. 

Loose  Raisins 158 

Stemming  and  Assorting ;    Packing  and  Cleaning ;    Sacking ;    Facing,    Top-up 

Method ;  Facing,  Top-down  Method  ;  Comparative  Value  of  the  Two  Methods. 

Layer  Raisins 162 

Sweating  and    Equalizing;    Packing  Layers,  Top-up    Method;    Packing  Layers. 

Top-down  Method  ;  Filling  ;  Nailing  and  Trimming ;  Labels. 

STATISTICS  OF  IMPORTATION,  PRODUCTION  AND  PRICES 169 

Production  of  Raisins  in  California  from  1873  to  1889;  Number  of  Acres  in  Raisin 

Grapes  in  California  in  1890 ;  California  and  Malaga  Prices,  Importation,  etc. , from 
1871  to  1889  ;  Exports  of  Malaga  Raisins  from  1864  to  1889  ;  Exports  of  Valencia 
Raisins  from  1850  to  1889 ;  First  Cost  of  Crop  of  Valencia  Raisins  ;  Production 
and  Distribution  of  Smyrna  Raisins  from  1844  to  18*4  ;  World's  Raisin  Produc- 
tion in  1890 ;  Importation  of  Raisins,  Currants  and  Figs  into  the  United  States 
from  1873  to  1878;  Importation  of  R"Sisins,  Currants  and  Figs  into  the  United 
States  from  1879  to  1888 ;  Consumption  of  Currants  and  Raisins  per  Head  of 
Total  Population  in  1884  ;  Prices  Ruling  in  the  California  Raisin  Districts. 

THROUGH  THE  CALIFORNIA  RAISIN  DISTRICTS 181 

Through  San  Joaquin  Valley  to  Fresno 181 

From  Los  Angeles  to  Santa  Ana 189 

From  Santa  Ana  to  San  Diego 192 

El  Cajon 195 

Riverside 199 

Redlands 202 

An  Hour  in  a  Packing-house 205 

RAISIN-GROWERS  AND  THEIR  VINEYARDS    208 

G.  G.  Briggs  ;  R.  B.  Blowers  ;  Robert  McPherson  ;   T.  C.  White  ;  Miss  M.  F.  Austin  ; 

Joseph  T.  Goodman;  A.  B.  Butler;  William  Fofsyfn;  A.  D.  Barling;  San 
Joaquin  Valley  Raisin  Packers  of  1889. 

LITERATURE 215 

Introductory  ;  List  of  Books  of  Reference. 

GENERAL  INDEX 219 


THE  RAISIN  INDUSTRY. 


A   PRACTICAL    TREATISE   ON   THE   RAISIN    GRAPES, 

THEIR  HISTORY,  CULTURE  AND  CURING,  WITH 

SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  CALIFORNIA, 

BY    GUSTAV   EISEN. 

Copyrighted. 

HISTORICAL. 


RAISINS. 

The  word  "raisin,"  as  spelled  and  pronounced  to-day,  is  not  of 
very  ancient  origin,  but  rather  a  corruption  and  evolution  of  older 
words,  both  spelled  and  pronounced  differently.  Thus  Falstaff  replies 
to  Prince  Hal:  "If  reasons  were  as  plentiful  as  blackberries,  I  would 
give  no  man  a  reason  upon  compulsion  "  (Henry  IV,  Act  II,  scene  4). 
Also,  Cooper,  in  his  dictionary  of  1685,  indicates  that  "raisin"  and 
"reason"  are  of  identical  sounds.  The  derivation  of  the  word  has, 
again,  been  very  variously  suggested  either  from  "red"  or  "rose" 
color,  connecting  it  with  the  German  and  Danish  word  "  rosine\  "  and 
it  has  even  been  suggested  that  the  word  was  derived  from  the  fact 
that  the  raisins  were  cured  in  the  " rays"  of  the  sun.  The  true  deri- 
vation, however,  is  from  the  Latin  word  "  racemus,"  meaning  a  bunch 
or  cluster.  Richardson,  who  first  points  out  this  derivation,  quotes : 
"Whether  a  reisyn  (E.  V.  graap,  racemus)  of  Effraym  is  not  better 
than  the  vindages  of  Abiezer  "  (WiclifFe  Judges  VIIJ,  2).  "And  there 
shall  be  left  in  it  as  a  rasyn  "  (E.  W,  braunches  of  a  cluster).  Margi- 
nal note,  "-A  rasyn  is  a  lytil  bow  with  a  lytil  fruit"  (Idem.  Is.,  XVIJ-, 
6).  But  we  have  much  older  testimony  of  this  derivation  being  the 
correct  one.  An  old  document  states  that,  in  1265  A.  D.,  the  Countess 
of  Leicester  paid  in  London  twelve  shillings  for  fourteen  pounds,  or, 
as  the  statement  reads  in  Latin,  "Pro  uno  fraello  racemorum;  "  which, 
translated,  would  be,  "for  one  frail  of  bunches."  The  evolution  of 
the  Latin  word  racemus  was  thus  seen  to  have  been  accomplished  rap- 
idly enough  ;  but,  on  account  of  the  illiteracy  of  the  olden  times,  it 
was  spelled  and  pronounced  promiscuously.  Thus  we  meet  with  such 
spellings  as  "  reysyns"  in  1266;  "  reysons"  in  1447  ("Russell's  Book 
of  Nurture").  In  1554  the  Stationers'  Company  in  London  paid  two- 
pence for  one  pound  of  " greate  reasons;"  while  Andrew  Borde,  in 
his  "  Dietary  "  of  1542,  says  that  "great  ray  sens  be  nutrytyve,  specyally 
yf  the  stones  be  pulled  out"  In  1578  Dodoens  speaks  of  dried  raysens. 
In  1685  the  word  "raisin"  is  used  and  spelled  as  in  our  days,  and 


6  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

from  that  time  on  the  different  spellings  were  used,  if  not  promiscu- 
ously, still  without  any  great  uniformity.  The  term  of  "greate  ray- 
sens"  was  introduced  to  distinguish  them  from  the  smaller  raisins,  or 
currants.  In  our  own  days,  the  latter  is  seldom  classed  or  alluded  to 
as  a  "raisin"  proper,  although  it,  strictly  speaking,  should  be  consid- 
ered as  such.  The  tendency  at  present  in  California  is  to  make  the 
distinction  between  "raisins"  and  "dried  grapes,"  meaning  by  the 
former  certain  varieties  of  grapes  which  have  been  skillfully  dried  and 
cured,  and  which  are  superior  in  taste,  flavor,  thinness  of  skin  and 
saccharine  matter.  "Dried  grapes,"  again,  are  simply  any  kind  of 
grape,  especially  wine-grapes,  which  have  only  been  dried,  and 
which  have  not  undergone  that  skillful  treatment  which  the  grape- 
grower  is  so  proud  of,  and  justly  enough  designates  as  "curing." 
They  are  an  outgrowth  from  the  late  efforts  of  the  French  wine  mer- 
chants to  make  genuine  French  wine  out  of  anything  that  is  sweet, 
and  as  they  are  immensely  preferable  to  beets,  potatoes  and  glucose, 
they  will  always  be  in  demand. 

With  the  above  definition  of  the  ' '  raisin  "  accepted,  we  can  pro- 
ceed to  consider  their  different  varieties,  their  names  and  deriva- 
tions. The  old  designations  of  the  different  varieties  were  derived  from 
the  places  where  they  were  produced,  without  special  reference  to  the 
grapes  from  which  the  raisins  were  made.  Thus  we  had  Malagas,  Cur- 
rants, Valencias,  Denias,  Turkish  and  Italian  raisins.  But  since  it  has 
been  found  that  the  same  kinds  of  raisins  have  been  produced  in  very 
different  localities,  and  that  some  localities  can  produce  all  the  different 
kinds,  a  new  division  has  been  found  necessary.  Thus,  disregarding 
the  many  various  brands  with  which  this  and  other  markets  are  flooded, 
the  following  different  varieties  of  raisins  will  be  found  the  principal 
ones:  Currants,  Muscatels ',  Dipped  and  Sultana. 

THE   CURRANT. 

The  currant  is  one  of  the  very  oldest  raisins  known.  As  early 
as  75  A.  D.  Pliny  speaks  of  the  fine  grapes  grown  in  Greece,  the 
berry  being  thin-skinned,  juicy  and  sweet,  and  the  bunch  being 
exceedingly  small.  This,  then,  must  be  the  currant  of  later  times. 
After  this  first  mention  of  this  grape,  the  same  drops  out  of  history 
for  ten  centuries,  and  the  name  currant  is  first  to  be  identified  with 
raisins  de  Corauntz,  or  rather,  "reysyns  de  Corauntzs"  as  late  as 
1334.  As  early  as  the  eleventh  century,  a  lively  traffic  in  this  kind 
of  raisins  had  taken  place  between  the  Greek  producers,  the  Veni- 
tians  and  other  of  the  Mediterranean  merchant  nations.  In  1334  we 
find  them  called  "corauntz;"  in  1435,  "corent;"  and  old  MS.  of  the 
Grocers'  Company  in  London,  speaks  of  "x  butts  and  vi  roundel- 
letts  of  resins  of  Corent."  Thus  spelle^  the  name  was  used  for 
years.  In  1463  "  reysonys  of  Corawnce  "  were  three  pence  per  pound, 
and  in  1512  the  Duke  of  Northumberland  paid  two  pence  per  pound 
for  rasyns  of  Corens.  In  1554  the  name  had  changed  to  currans, 
and  the  Stationers'  Company  provided  for  a  banquet ( '  5  punde  of  currans 
at  one  shilling  and  eight  pence."  In  1558  the  same  company  pro- 
vided for  "6  punde  of  currance  for  2  shillings."  In  1578  we  find  in 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  7 

Ivytes'  translation  of  Dodoen's  "Herbal,"  in  the  description  of  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  vines,  that  "Small  raysens,  commonly  called 
Corantes,  but  more  rightly  raysens  of  Corinthe.  The  fruit  is  called 
in  the  shoppes  of  the  countrie,*  passulae  de  Corinthe;  in  French, 
raisins  de  Corinthe;  in  base  Almaigne  (Dutch)  Corinthea;  in  English, 
Currantes,  and  small  raysens  of  Corynthe."  Here,  then,  is  indicated 
for  the  first  time  that  the  true  and  correct  name  should  be  ' '  raisins  of 
Corinth. ' '  But  we  need  not  follow  this  evolution  any  longer;  there 
can  be  no  possible  doubt  that  the  name  currant,  the  one  now 
accepted  for  this  class  of  raisins,  is  derived  from  the  town  of  Corinth, 
on  the  mainland  of  Greece, — the  Morea  of  our  days,  the  Pelopon- 
nesus of  the  ancients.  Until  the  time  when  the  Turks  conquered 
Greece,  the  port  of  Corinth  was  the  principal  point  of  export  for  this 
class  of  raisins,  and  while,  after  the  subjection  of  Greece  this  com- 
merce entirely  ceased,  still  this  fruit  always  continued  to  bear  the 
name  by  which  it  first  became  known  to  commerce. 

MUSCATELS. 

The  principal  and  most  valued  class  of  raisins  are  the  Muscatels 
or  Muscats.  They  all  derive  their  name  from  the  Muscatel  or  Muscat 
grape,  from  which  these  raisins  are  made.  As  to  the  origin  of  the 
name  Muscat,  opinions  differ.  The  most  popular  one  is  that  the  grape 
got  its  name  from  the  supposed  musky  flavor  peculiar  to  this  variety  of 
grape.  It  is,  however,  far  more  likely  that  the  name  is  a  very  ancient 
one,  and  derived  from  the  I^atin  word  Musca^mQamng  a  fly, — these  fine 
grapes  when  drying  being  especially  attractive  to  flies.  The  Romans 
called  this  grape,  "Uva  Apiaria,"  meaning  bee  grapes,  or  grapes 
beloved  by  bees,  from  the  fact  that  the  bees  are  especially  attracted  to 
these  grapes  when  they  are  being  dried.  The  Muscat  or  Muscatel 
would  then  not  originally  designate  a  certain  variety  of  grapes,  but 
grapes  used  for  drying  generally.  In  the  course  of  time  the  name  was 
transferred  to  or  especially  given  to  the  best  grape  for  drying  purposes, 

— the  Muscatel  of  our  own  times. 

ff 

DEHESA  RAISINS. 

The  finest  or  at  least  the  most  expensive  brand  of  raisins  made  is 
the  Dehesa  raisin  of  Malaga.  They  are  produced  from  the  Muscatel 
variety  and  the  name  they  bear  has  an  interesting  origin,  giving  us  at 
the  same  time  an  insight  in  the  development  of  the  agricultural  and  hor- 
ticultural resources  of  Spain.  The  word  ' '  Dehesa  "  is  found  by  reference 
to  a  good  Spanish  dictionary  to  mean  pasture  ground.  The  "  Dehesa  " 
raisins  then  are  pasture-ground  raisins,  or  raisins  grown  on  former 
pasture  ground.  The  way  the  raisins  came  to  be  given  such  a  name  is 
as  follows.  Between  the  years  800  and  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
the  fairest  part  of  Spain  as  well  as  Portugal  was  occupied  by  the  Moors. 
Contrary  to  their  nature  in  other  countries,  they  proved  here  extremely 
industrious,  and  excelled  both  as  merchants,  artisans  and  agricultu- 
rists. The  waters  of  the  streams  were  conducted  to  the  land  ill 

*  Holland,  Dodoens  was  a  learned  Dutch  botanist. 


8  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

aqueducts,  dams  were  thrown  across  the  rivers,  reservoirs  were 
formed,  and  the  whole  of  Southern  Spain  became  most  highly  culti- 
vated, rich  and  prosperous.  In  fact,  if  the  historians  are  to  be  believed, 
and  the  yet  remaining  views  of  former  grandeur  can  be  trusted,  no 
country  either  in  ancient  or  modern  times  has  ever  in  prosperity  rivaled 
the  ancient  Moorish  kingdoms  of  Granada  and  Andalusia.  In  the 
thirteenth  century  the  Christian  knights  and  kings  of  Central  and 
Northern  Spain  succeeded  in  conquering  the  Moors,  who  again  were 
unmercifully  expelled,  massacred  or  enslaved,  their  cities  burned  and 
razed,  and  the  fertile  and  cultivated  districts  utterly  ruined.  Vast 
tracts  were  depopulated  and  abandoned,  and,  nature  taking  its 
course,  wild  grass,  shrubbery  and  trees  soon  covered  the  former  highly 
cultivated  plains.  In  the  course  of  time  these  uncultivated  lands 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  highland  shepherds,  who  drove  their  herds 
to  them  during  the  winters,  again  returning  to  the  mountains  at  the 
advent  of  the  dry  season. 

By  degrees  the  self-taken  rights  of  the  sheepmen  became  more 
widely  recognized,  and,  while  the  less  valuable  lands  were  taken  pos- 
session of  by  the  poorer  peasantry,  these  pasture  lands  were  set  apart  for 
the  exclusive  use  of  the  sheep-owners.  The  pasture  lands  thus  being 
free,  it  was  no  wonder  that  the  sheep  industry  flourished,  and  that  the 
flocks  increased.  The  wool  industry  soon  became  one  of  the  most 
important  in  Spain.  The  flocks  were  principally  owned  by  nobles  and 
monks,  and  the  poor  peasants,  who  constituted  the  only  agricultural 
population,  had  very  little  if  any  chance  to  oppose  the  ever  greater 
encroachments  of  the  wandering  flocks  or  their  insolent  owners.  The 
Merinos,  or  moving  sheep,  were  wintered  in  the  warm  valleys  of 
Andalusia,  Murcia  and  Kstremadura,  only  to  be  again  removed  to  the 
cooler  mountains  of  I,eon  and  Castille  at  the  advent  of  spring.  What 
curse  this  would  entail  on  the  agricultural  population  is  easy  to  be 
seen.  The  sheep  were  moving  in  bands  of  10,000  each,  and  700  to 
800  such  flocks  were  moved  annually  twice  through  a  country  devoid 
of  fences  or  inclosures  of  any  kind.  Numerous  disputes  and  constant 
bloody  fights  arose  between  farmers  and  the  shepherd,  to  settle  which 
the  "  Council  of  the  Mesta"  was  instituted.  In  tyranny,  this 
dreaded  institution  was  only  equaled  by  the  famous  Inquisition,  with 
which  in  birth  and  death  it  was  almost  contemporaneous.  In  the  year 
1556  a  code  of  laws  was  promulgated,  and  a  compromise  was  entered 
upon.  But  the  tyranny  of  the  shepherds,  upheld  through  their 
"  Mesta,"  was  in  no  way  diminished.  The  latter  continually  extended 
its  power,  encroached  upon  new  territory,  appropriating  gradually  the 
finest  pastures  of  Spain,  and  finally  obtained  a  monopoly  of  the  wool 
trade.  Its  tyranny  became  at  last  intolerable.  The  shepherds  of  the 
Mesta  were  more  dreaded  than  robbers  and  highwaymen  in  every  place 
througn  which  they  passed.  Agriculture  became  almost  impossible. 
At  last  the  "  Mesta'"  was  abolished  by  the  Cortez  in  Cadiz  in  1812, 
and  a  few  years  afterwards  the  pastures  or  Dehesas  were  sold.  One  of 
the  finest  Dehesas  near  Velez,  Malaga,  was  planted  to  Muscatel  grapes, 
and  through  the  combined  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  abun- 
dance of  moisture,  the  vineyard  proved  a  great  success.  So  fine 


THIS    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  9 

were  the  grapes  grown  there  that  they  attracted  great  attention; 
no  such  fine  grapes  had  ever  been  seen  in  Andalusia  before.  The 
merchants  to  whom  the  first  raisins  were  sold  were  much  aston- 
ished, and  wonderingly  asked  whence  they  came.  The  reply,  "from 
the  Dehesa,"  was  from  that  time  on  applied  to  the  finest  Muscatel 
grapes. 

LEXIAS,  OR  LYE-DIPPED,  AND   OTHER  RAISINS. 

The  third  class  of  raisins  are  the  dipped  raisins,  so  called  from 
being  dipped  in  boiling  lye  before  being  dried  and  cured.  The  Span- 
ish name  for  these  raisins  is  Lexias.  The  name  Lexia  is,  again,  derived 
from  a  more  ancient  word,  the  Latin  lixivium ,  or  lixia,  meaning  lye. 
To-day  the  continental  name  for  this  class  of  raisin  is  Lexias,  when 
the  more  specific  names  of  Denias  and  Valencias  are  not  used.  Here,  in 
America,  we  generally  use  these  names,  and  whenever  we  speak  of 
Valencias  and  Denias  we  mean  the  dipped  raisins  of  these  districts. 
To  the  above  three  classes  of  raisins  we  might  appropriately  add 
Sultanas  and  Malagas.  The  Sultanas  are  made  from  the  Sultana 
grape,  a  seedless  grape  from  Asia  Minor,  now  grown  in  many  Mediter- 
ranean countries,  as  well  as  here  in  California.  The  Malagas,  again, 
were  originally  the  Muscatels  grown  around  Malaga,  in  Spain;  but 
of  late  this  name  is  being,  with  considerable  confusion,  applied  to  a 
coarser  raisin  made  in  California  from  a  grape  here  called,  for  want 
of  a  better  name,  the  Malaga  grape. 

Among  names  which  were  formerly  much  used,  but  which  have 
gone  out  of  use,  was  the  Solis,  or  sun-dried  raisins,  especially  the 
sun-dried  Muscatels  of  Malaga.  As  early  as  1295  A.  D.,  the  Muscatels 
were  generally  called  thus:  Raisins  of  the  sun;  Solis,  or  sun-dried,  so 
as  to  distinguish  them  from  the  inferior  dipped,  or  Lexias.  In  our 
own  time,  this  name  was  nearly  being  revived,  when  a  couple  of  years 
ago  our  California  sun-dried  raisins  were  spoken  of  in  opposition  to  our 
machine-diied  raisins,  and  when  both  classes  had  their  earnest  and 
enthusiastic  champions. 

We  cannot  leave  this  chapter  on  names  without  referring  to  classes 
of  raisins  receiving  their  names  from  "certain  localities.  Of  course,  the 
number  of  such  names  may  be  almost  endless.  It  is,  however,  only 
of  interest  to  refer  to  the  principal  ones,  such  as  have  been  known 
to  commerce  in  former  days  or  are  yet  known.  Thus,  we  designate  as 
Malagas  any  of  the  raisins  grown  and  shipped  from  Malaga.  The 
Smyrnas  (formerly  Smirna)  are  those  from  Smyrna,  in  Asia  Minor, 
both  sun-dried  and  dipped  raisins;  the  Alicantes,  dipped  raisins,  from 
Alicante,  in  Spain;  the  Denias,  dipped  raisins  from  Denia,  in  Spain; 
the  Valencias,  dipped  raisins  from  Valencia  (include  Denias);  the 
Liparf,  raisins  from  the  Island  of  L,ipari,  near  Sicily;  the  Bel- 
videres,  from  the.  same  island  and  from  the  Island  of  Pantellaria; 
the  Calabrian  raisins,  from  Calabria,  in  Italy;  the  Faro  raisins,  from 
the  port  of  Faro,  in  Algarve,  Portugal.  We  have  above  already 
referred  to  the  currants,  from  the  town  of  Corinth  and  the  Grecian 
Islands,  and  the  Malagas,  from  Malaga.  The  latter  were  also  known 
as  ' '  great  raisins, ' '  on  account  of  their  superior  quality.  Among  the 


10  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

latter  we  should,  of  course,  count  the  California  raisins;  but,  unfortu- 
nately, our  raisin-growers  have  not  until  quite  recently  recognized  the 
necessity  of  adopting  names  which  should  at  once  show  the  locality 
where  the  raisins  are  produced.  But  we  will  return  to  this  further  on. 

VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  RAISINS. 

a.  Sun-dried  raisins. 

1.  Muscatels,  or  Muscats,  from  Malaga  or  California.     The  former, 
/ also  known  at  various  periods  as  "Solis,"  or  sun-dried,  or  "great  rai- 
sins, ' '  on  account  of  their  very  superior  qualities. 

2.  Currants,  raisins  made  of  the  small  currant  grape,  originally 
from  Corinth. 

3.  Belvideres,  raisins  from  Calabria,  in  Italy,  and  from  the  Islands  of 
Lipari  and  Pantallaria,  near  Sicily. 

4.  Black  Smyrna,  properly  only  a  dried  grape,  not  exported  to  this 
country. 

5.  California  Malagas,  made  from  the  Malaga  grape. 

6.  California  sun-dried  Sultanas,  made  from  the  Sultana  grapes  in 
this  State.     And,  lastly, — 

/        7.  Seedless  Muscatels,  made  in  California,  and  being  the  smallest 
^Muscats  separated  from  the  larger  seed-bearing  berries. 

8.  Thompson   Seedless,    a  new,  very  promising  raisin  now  being 
produced  in  this  country  from  vines  imported  originally  from  Constan- 
tinople, producing  seedless  grapes,  slightly  larger  than  the  Sultanas. 

9.  Dried  grapes  of  any  description,  especially  wine  grapes,  exported 
from   this  and  Mediterranean  countries  for  wine-making  to  France, 
England  and  the  Eastern  States. 

b.  Dipped  raisins. 

10.  Lexias,  or  Dipped  Muscatels,  from  Denia,  Valencia,  Alicante, 
in  Spain. 

11.  California  Dipped,  especially  second-crop  Muscatels.     Proper 
name  not  yet  established. 

12.  Smyrnas,  which  again  may  be  either  Sultanas,    Chesmes  or 
Elemes.     The  first  from  the  Sultana  grape,  the  two  latter,  the  ' '  red  ' ' 
grapes,  from  Dipped  Muscatels. 

13.  Faros,  from  Algarve,  in  Portugal,  not  known  in  this  country. 

c.  Dried  in  the  shade. 

14.  Huasco  raisin,  from  Chile.      To  this  list  might  be  added  many 
more  varieties  of  less  importance. 

RAISIN    DISTRICTS. 


J 


FOREIGN  DISTRICTS. 


RAISINS  IN  ANCIENT  TIMES. 

Previous  to  the  production  of  raisins  in  California  within  the  last 
twenty  years,  the  raisin  industry  of  the  world  was  entirely  confined  to 
the  Mediterranean  district  of  Europe  and  Asia.  At  that  period,  however, 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  11 

raisin  grapes  became  more  disseminated,  and  raisins  were  produced  to 
begin  with  in  -small  quantities  in  widely  distant  countries,  such  as 
Chile,  Australia  and  California.  By  virtue  of  their  climatic  conditions, 
the  Mediterranean  countries  were  the  only  parts  of  Europe  where 
raisin  culture  could  be  successfully  carried  on,  though  it  is  almost 
certain  that  the  original  home  of  the  raisin  grapes  must  be  looked  for 
elsewhere.  In  searching  for  the  original  habitat  for  the  ancient  varie- 
ties of  raisin  grapes,  we  must  look  further  east  to  ancient  Persia,  or 
to  the  tablelands  of  Western  Asia  generally.  In  remotest  antiquity, 
grape  culture  was  carried  on  there,  and  in  the  ancient  records  of 
travelers  in  those  countries  we  find  mentioned  dried  and  seedless 
grapes.  We  can  trace  the  origin  of  two  varieties  of  raisin  grapes  to  the 
beginning  of  our  era,  which  must  then  already  have  attained  perfection. 
As  has  been  mentioned  before,  Pliny  spoke  of  a  small,  sweet  and 
remarkable  grape  grown  by  the  Greeks,  evidently  the  "currant;" 
he  also  mentions  Uva  Zibebae  and  Uva  Alexandria. 

The  Latins  generally  spoke  of  Uvae  Apiariae  or  Uvae  Muscae,  our 
present   Muscatels  or  dried   grapes  generally.     This  carries  us  back  * 
fully  nineteen  centuries.     But  we  may  well  believe,  even  in  want  of 
records,  that  the  drying  of  grapes  was  practiced  centuries  before. 

MODERN  RAISIN  DISTRICTS. 

Leaving  remote  antiquity,  it  was  only  in  the  Mediterranean  basin, 
and  in  comparatively  modern  times,  that  the  drying  of  grapes  developed 
tp  an  important  industry,  and  in  more  recent  times  yet  that  grapes 
were  exported  to  Northern  Europe.  While  thus  the  industry  is  old, 
it  was  not  until  the  eleventh  century,  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  that  , 
it  became  important.  The  returning  knights  brought  with  them 
•taste  for  and  acquaintance  with  the  products  of  the  East.  Northern 
Europe  became  the  consumers  of  raisins,  regarding  them  as  the 
greatest  luxuries,  only  to  be  afforded  by  the  rich.  It  has  been  reserved 
for  our  time  to  make  the  raisin  a  necessity  even  in  humbler  homes. 
The  perfection  to  which  the  raisin  industry  has  attained  is  of  modern 
origin  not  yet  half  a  century  old.  ," 

The  raisin  districts  of  the  world  are  not  large,  and  while  for 
centuries  every  effort  was  made  to  extend  the  planting  of  raisin  grapes 
and  their  curing  into  raisins,  few  of  these  efforts  have  been  crowned 
with  success.  While  raisin  grapes  may  grow  and  be  turned  into 
raisins  in  almost  every  part  of  the  Mediterranean  basin,  experience 
has  demonstrated  that  it  has  only  proved  a  paying  business  in 
comparatively  few  localities.  ,  The  reasons  of  this  are  not  fully 
apparent;  but  they  are  evidently  dependent  both  upon  climatic  condi- 
tions and  upon  the  capability  of  the  natives  to  learn  and  profit  by  the 
experiences  of  others,  and  upon  their  enterprise  in  venturing  upon  a 
new  industry.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  likely  that,  even  with 
extensive  experiments  and  with  the  aid  of  large  capital,  the  growing 
and  curing  of  the  raisin  grapes  could  be  very  extensively  extended. 
The  question  there  as  well  as  here  is  not  one  alone  of  agricultural 
consideration,  but  a  financial  problem  dependent  upon  the  labor 
supply,  the  facilities  for  shipping,  climatic  conditions  during  the  curing 


12  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

season,  etc.  Such  being  the  case,  all  the  more  interest  is  attached  to 
those  localities  and  districts  where  the  raisin  industry  flourishes,  and 
where  there  is  every  probability  that  it  will  remain  a  success. 

THE  MALAGA  DISTRICT. 

Extent  and  Age  of  the  District. — Malaga  has  been  known  to 
export  raisins  since  1295  A.  D.,  but  must  have  been  a  raisin-producing 
district  centuries  before.  The  raisin  cult,  then,  is  no  doubt  of 
Phoenician  origin,  and  has  been  practiced  in  the  same  locality  for  two 
thousand  years  or  more.  Under  the  Romans  the  raisin  industry 
was  continued,  but  appears  to  have  deteriorated  and  later  on  to 
have  been  abandoned  altogether,  as  the  local  tradition  credits  the 
Moors  with  having  re-introduced  the  raisin  grape  into  Velez  Malaga. 
The  raisin  district  of  Malaga  extends  along  the  southern  coast  of 
Spain  for  a  distance  of  sixty  or  seventy  miles.  The  district  is  subdi- 
vided into  several  other  districts.  Thus,  the  subdistrict  of  Malaga 
proper  occupies  a  plain  eighteen  miles  long  by  nine  miles  wide,  in  the 
northeast  corner  of  which  is  situated  the  town  of  Malaga. 

The  best  part  of  the  whole  district  is,  however,  found  at  Velez 
Malaga,  situated  northeast  of  Malaga  proper.  It  was  here  the  raisin 
grape  was  first  planted  by  the  Romans  or  Phoenicians,  and  it  was  here 
also  the  devastating  phylloxera  first  made  its  appearance.  The  raisin 
vineyards  extend  here  not  over  a  vega  or  plain,  but  occupy  the  fer- 
tile country  along  the  coast  or  the  literal  towards  Malaga  proper. 

Beyond  Velez  Malaga  to  Algaroba,  the  Muscatel  grape  is  of  infe- 
rior quality,  and  is  greatly  superseded  by  the  red  Muscats,  principally 
exported  to  France. 

Another  district  is  Marbella,  on  the  coast,  and  in  the  interior  we 
find  Ronda  and  Albunol.  Of  the  principal  towns  in  these  districts,  the 
population  of  Malaga  is  120,000,  that  of  Velez  Malaga  24,000,  of  Mar- 
bella 7,700,  and  of  Ronda  19,000. 

Climate.  —  The  climate  of  Malaga  is  the  very  mildest.  Frost  is 
almost  unknown,  and  is  never  heavy.  The  average  temperature  of 
Malaga  during  the  winter  months  of  November  to  January  is  56  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  while  that  of  Pau  in  France  is  41,  and  that  of  Nice  47. 
Malaga  is  well  sheltered  on  the  north  and  east  by  mountains,  but  is  open 
to  the  south.  It  is  the  most  equitable  climate  of  Europe,  although  the 
winds  are  sometimes  trying.  The  summer  is  v^ery  tempered.  The  air 
is,  however,  moist,  and  fog,  while  rare,  is  not  entirely  absent.  Rain 
sometimes  falls  during  the  growing  season  of  the  grapes,  and  quite 
frequently  during  the  drying  season.  But  the  fog  is  warm  and  not 
specially  injurious  to  the  grapes,  the  latter  often  growing  within  reach 
of  the  spray  on  the  seashore. 

Soil. — The  soil  of  the  Malaga  vineyards  varies  considerably,  the 
best  being  a  reddish  clayey  loam  with  much  sand  and  gravel.  But  we 
have  also  other  varieties  of  soil,  sucii  as  the  white  ash,  gray  alluvial 
soils,  and  the  very  sandy  loam  on  the  hills. 

Location  of  the  Vineyards. — In  former  years,  the  vineyards  were 
principally  located  on  the  hillsides,  only  occasionally  extending  to 
the  level  plains.  Of  late,  however,  the  hillside  vineyards  l;ave 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  13 

suffered  from  the  phylloxera  and  various  other  diseases,  and  many 
of  them  have  been  dug  up.  The  lowland  vineyards  are  now  the 
best,  although  even  they  are,  by  far,  not  free  from  disease.  Few 
of  the  vineyards  are  located  on  entirely  level  ground,  there  being 
but  little  such  in  the  district.  The  nature  of  the  country  is  rolling, 
with  small  valleys  or  flats.  The  raisin  grapes  grow  apparently  well 
both  inland  and  on  the  coast.  According  to  Consul  Marston,  about 
eighty  per  cent  of  the  vineyards  are  situated  on  rolling  land,  ten  per 
cent  on  lowland  and  ten  per  cent  on  the  very  coast.  The  vineyards  on 
the  coast  are  actually  within  reach  of  the  spray. 

The  vine3^ards  are  generally  small,  none  being  over  eighty  acres 
in  extent.  Most  contain,  perhaps,  from  three  to  four  acres  each; 
while  from  twenty  to  forty  acres  is  considered  a  good-sized  vineyard. 

Varieties  of  Grapes. — The  principal  variety  used  is  the  Gordo 
Blanco  or  Muscatel.  It  is  identical  with  the  grape  known  by  us  under 
that  name,  and  which  was  imported  to  us  from  Malaga.  But  several 
types  are  found,  although  none  superior  to  the  Gordo  Blanco. 

Characteristics  of  the  Raisins. — The  Malaga  raisins  were,  until 
lately,  the  finest  raisins  in  the  world,  and  for  the  present  have  only 
the  California  raisins  to  compete  with.  They  are  characterized  by 
great  sweetness,  deep  bluish  color,  great  size  and  by  good  keeping 
qualities.  The  best  raisins  are  those  called  Dehesas,  being  produced 
on  the  valley  lands  of  the  districts.' 

Yield  of  Grapes. — The  yield  of  Malaga  vineyards  varies  of  course. 
The  best  yield  eight  or  nine  tons  of  grapes  to  the  acre, — just  like  those 
of  California.  But  there  is  a  great  difference  between  new  and  old 
vineyards.  In  many  vineyards  where  formerly  the  yield  was  nine  tons, 
the  soil  has  been  so  exhausted  by  continuous  croppings  that  to-day, 
even  with  manuring,  two  or  three  tons  of  grapes  must  be  considered  a 
high  yield. 

Distances  of  the  Vines. — The  older  vineyards  had  their  vines  set 
seven  feet  by  seven  feet,  but  of  late  the  vines  are  planted  generally 
eight  feet  by  four  feet,  thus  much  closer  than  by  us  in  California. 

Pruning. — The  pruning  of  the  vineyard  is  performed  very  much 
as  in  California.  Formerly  the  soil  had  to  be  removed  from  the 
vines  before  they  could  be  pruned;  now  this  is  not  necessary  except 
while  the  vines  are  very  young.  The  various  branches  are  pruned 
back  to  a  few  inches,  with  two  eyes  each,  while  the  heads  are  elevated 
only  a  few  inches  above  the  ground. 

Manuring  and  Fertilizing. — The  Malaga  vineyardist  fully  under- 
stands the  value  of  manuring  his  vineyards,  and  uses  for  this  purpose 
not  only  all  fertilizers  available  at  home,  but  also  imports  directly  from 
distant  countries.  The  most  valued  fertilizers  are  the  Mexican  and 
Chilean  guanos  or  phosphates.  The  Mexican  phosphate  costs  in 
Malaga  sixty-five  dollars  per  ton;  still  it  is  used  by  all  the  principal 
vineyardists,  who  know  the  value  of  fertilizers.  In  fact,  concentrated 
fertilizers  are  a  necessity  to  the  Malaga  vineyards;  without  them  they 
could  not  be  cropped.  Even  the  most  virgin  soil  is  exhausted  in  ten 
years'  time  by  constant  croppings  of  raisin  grapes;  no  paying  crops 
could  be  expected  if  fertilizers  were  not  used  yearly.  This  fertilizing 


14  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

of  the  soil  is,  however,  of  recent  origin,  and  fifty  years  ago  was  almost 
unknown. 

When  home  manures  are  used,  it  is  placed  in  holes  dug  round 
the  roots  of  the  vines,  which,  after  exposure  to  the  air  for  several 
months,  are  again  filled  up  at  the  advent  of  spring,  generally  in  March, 
before  the  vines  start  to  bud. 

Drying-floors •,  or  Sequeros. — The  raisins,  when  picked,  are  dried 
on  so-called  sequeros,  or  drying-floors,  characteristic  of  the  Malaga 
district.  These  floors  are  of  different  sizes  and  lengths  in  different 
vineyards,  but  everywhere  constructed  on  the  same  general  principles. 
Where  an  incline  or  a  hill  is  found,  the  floor  may  simply  be  built 
on  the  slope, .  with  no  artificial  elevation;  but,  where  the  ground  is 
level,  the  structure  of  the  sequero  is  different.  The  floor  must 
always  face  the  south,  and  the  back  is  raised  to  give  the  floor 
the  proper  slope.  The  sequero  thus  consists  of  four  walls,  the  front 
one  of  which  is  only  a  foot  high,  and  the  back  wall  from  six  to 
eight  feet  high.  The  side  walls  slope  between  these,  generally  with 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees.  In  length,  these  floors  vary  from  forty 
to  fifty  feet,  according  to  the  different  ideas  of  the  vineyardists.  The 
whole  interior  is  filled  with  black  gravel,  and  is  tamped  hard.  These 
sequeros  are  divided  in  beds,  fourteen  feet  or  so  wide,  by  tiles  that  are 
sunk,  thus  forming  walks  of  several  feet  in  width,  and  which  also  serve 
for  leading  off  the  rainwater.  Around  every  little  bed  of  this  kind  are 
small  upright  tiles  to  prevent  the  rainwater  entering  from  the  walks. 
Finally,  in  the  center  of  thp  bed,  is  a  long  row  of  upright  tiles,  high 
enough  to  support  either  boards,  mats,  or  more  generally  canvas,  in 
order  that  they  may  shed  the  rain  into  the  tile  walks.  The  value  of 
such  floors  is  evident.  Being  covered  with  canvas,  etc. ,  every  night, 
the  heat  is  preserved,  and  every  morning,  when  the  sun  rises,  the 
grapes  are  yet  warm.  The  drying  on  such  beds  has  never, 
in  fact,  been  interrupted.  The  drying-floors  are  also  useful  in  case  of 
too  hot  weather,  when  the  grapes  can  be  properly  sheltered  with  canvas 
and  prevented  from  being  cooked;  when  finally  dried,  the  cover- 
ing, again,  will  serve  to  keep  the  moisture  from  too  quickly  evapo- 
rating. 

Drying  and  Curing. — When  the  grapes  are  picked,  the  best 
vineyardists  separate  the  bunches  immediately  in  three  different 
grades.  Each  grade  is  placed  by  itself  on  the  gravelly  drying-ground, 
and  remains  there  to  dry.  When  half  dried,  they  are  taken  bunch 
by  bunch  by  a  workman,  who  picks  out  bad  or  overdried  berries  and 
rubbish,  and  in  putting  the  bunch  back  turns  it  over.  In  ten  days 
the  grapes  are  generally  dried,  provided  the  weather  has  been  favor- 
able. Every  night  the  canvas  covering  i^  slid  down  over  the  sequero, 
and  the  grapes  protected  from  dew  and  cold,  or  rain.  The  drying  is 
sometimes  greatly  hastened  by  the  Terral  or  hot  winds  blowing  from 
the  plains  of  La  Mancha,  a  wind  very  similar  in  its  effect  to  the  desert 
wind  of  Riverside  and  Santa  Ana,  in  California. 

Packing. — The  raisins  in  Malaga  are  packed  by  the  large  growers 
themselves,  and  every  such  grower  packs  almost  to  a  man.  The  gener- 
ally accepted  idea  that  a  few  packers  living  in  Malaga  pack  all  the  raisins 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  15 

is  erroneous.  This  is  not  the  case.*  Nearly  all  packers  there  are  also 
growers  owning  their  own  vineyards.  The  raisins  are  all  packed  in  22- 
pound  boxes  or  in  quarters,  etc. ,  according  to  the  demands  of  the  trade. 

The  various  raisin  brands  packed  in  Malaga  are  different  according 
to  the  different  markets  that  are  to  be  supplied.  Thus  for  England  we 
have:  Finest  Dehesa,  three  crown;  finest  Dehesa,  two  crown;  finest 
Dehesa,  one  crown;  Dehesa;  Choice  layers;  London  layers,  three 
crown;  London  layers,  two  crown;  London  layers,  one  crown. 

For  France  again  we  have:  i  Imperiaux;  i  Royaux;  Couches; 
Surchoix;  Choix;  Ordinaire;  Surcouches,  etc. 

The  loose  raisins  or  Brena  and  the  seedless  or  Escombro  generally 
go  to  the  continent  or  even  to  the  United  States.  The  old  terms 
Garoon  or  Sun  are  now  never  used. 

For  American  markets  we  have:  Imperial  Dehesa;  Royal  finest 
Dehesa;  finest  Dehesa;  fine  Dehesa;  Dehesa;  London  layers,  three 
crown;  London  layers,  two  crown;  London  loose,  one,  two  and  three 
crown. 

Boxes  are  generally  made  from  fir  imported  from  Portugal,  at  fifteen 
cents  each.  Of  late  years,  however,  they  are  also  received  from  Canada, 
and  cost  only  seven  cents  each. 

Labor. — The  labor  in  Malaga  is  the  most  expensive  in  Spain,  the 
best  laborer  being  paid  forty  cents  per  day,  while  in  Denia  the  labor 
is  obtained  for  fifteen  cents  only;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
packing  of  the  Malaga  raisins  is  a  much  more  particular  work  than 
the  packing  of  the  dipped  Denias. 

The  price  paid  for  Malaga  raisins  at  the  packing-house  is  at  an 
average  of  seven  cents  per  pound  for  the  best,  or  from  one  to  two  cents 
more  than  what  is  paid  in  California.  The  lower  grades  bring  from 
two  and  a  half  cents  upwards. 

VALENCIA  AND   DENIA. 

Extent  of  the  Districts. — The  Valencia  raisins,  or,  as  they  are  called, 
the  Lexias  or  Spanish  dipped  raisins,  are  produced  in  the  province  of 
Valencia,  situated  on  the  east  coast  pf  Spain.  The  district  contains 
three  sub-districts,  the  southern  one,  the  Alicante  district,  extending 
from  Villa  Joyosa  in  the  north  to  Elche  in  the  south.  The  raisins  of 
the  Alicante  district  are  inferior  to  those  produced  in  the  other  dis- 
tricts, both  as  regards  quality  and  quantity.  The  most  northerly 
district  is  the  Valencia  district  proper,  extending  from  Cullera  in  the 
south  to  Castellon  in  the  north.  North  of  the  latter  place  the  Muscat 
grape  does  not  come  to  perfection,  and  even  within  this  district  com- 
paratively few  raisins  are  now  produced  as  compared  with  a  few  years 
ago.  But  the  bulk  of  all  the  raisins  produced  in  the  province  are 
exported  from  Valencia  city,  and  hence  these  raisins  are  known  as 
Velencias,  while  in  reality  they  come  principally  from  Denia. 

The  bulk  of  the  Valencia  raisins  come  from  the  central  district,  or 
the  Denia  sub-district,  comprising  the  land  between  Villa  Joyosa  in 
the  south  and  Cullera  in  the  north,  or  about  thirty  miles  on  each  side 
of  the  town  of  Denia.  Towards  the  interior  the  raisin  district  extends 

*  According  to  A.  B.  Butler. 


16  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

at  the  most  nine  miles,  but  the  average  is  less,  so  that  the  whole 
district  over  which  the  Denia  vineyards  are  spread  includes  only  an 
area  of  350  square  miles,  equal  to  ten  townships  of  land,  or  about 
224,000  acres.  A  large  part  of  this  land  is  not  cultivated,  and  consists 
of  mountains  and  waste  places  only  suitable  as  watersheds.  The  town 
of  Denia  is  the  principal  town  of  the  sub-district,  and  has  now  a  popu- 
lation of  about  2,600  people.  It  is  situated  about  half  way  between 
Valencia  in  the  north  and  Alicante  in  the  south,  on  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean,  in  about  the  latitude  of  Sacramento  in  California,  or 
thirty-eight  degrees,  fifty  minutes  north.  Being  one  of  the  oldest 
towns  in  Spain,  Denia  was  first  founded  by  the  Phoenicians,  who  here 
established  the  worship  of  Diana,  from  which  word  the  name  Denia  is 
a  corruption.  The  Phoenicians  also  introduced  the  grapes,  and  possibly 
also  the  drying  of  raisins;  but  the  local  tradition  gives  the  honor  of 
the  latter  industry  to  the  Moors,  who  are  said  to  have  brought  with 
them  the  variety  of  grape  known  as  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria. 
During  a  part  of  the  year,  Denia  is  the  export  harbor  for  the  raibins  of 
the  district.  This  is  only  possible  in  the  early  part  of  the  raisin  sea- 
son, as  then  only  are  the  winds  favorable, — the  so-called  harbor  being 
nothing  but  a  roadstead.  Later  in  the  season,  when  storms  and  rains 
set  in,  all  the  raisins  are  shipped  to  Valencia  by  railroad,  and  from 
there  exported  by  steamers  and  sailing  vessels. 

Among  other  industries  of  the  Denia  district  are  the  cultivation  of 
onions,  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods,  its  sardine  fisheries,  etc. ,  all 
giving  work  to  the  vineyard  workers  during  a  time  of  the  year  when 
there  is  nothing  or  but  little  to  do  in  the  vineyards  and  packing- 
houses. 

The  raisins  of  Denia  are  not  all  of  the  same  quality,  but  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  locality  where  grown.  The  whole  district  is  dotted  with 
small  villages,  all  producing  raisins.  The  principal  ones  of  these  are, 
besides  Denia  proper,  Jabea,  Jaraco,  Jerrea,  Oliva,  Pedreguer,  Jalon, 
Gandia,  Ondara,  Vergel,  etc.  Of  these,  Denia  proper  produced  in 
1876  over  2,500  tons  of  raisins,  Jabea  1,700  tons,  Oliva  1,600  tons, 
Pedreguer  1,000  tons,  Retoria  900  tons,  Jalon  850  tons,  Ondara  and 
Benisa  800  tons  each.  But,  besides  these,  there  are  some  twenty  odd 
more  villages  or  smaller  raisin  centers,  which  produce  from  200  to  700 
tons  each,  or  an  aggregate  of  20,000  tons  of  raisins. 

Soils  and  Appearance  of  the  Districts. — The  soils  of  the  province  of 
Valencia,  where  the  vineyards  are  situated,  are  of  various  kinds,  such 
as  cretaceous  and  calcareous  soils,  containing  admixtures  of  clay,  sand 
and  gravel.  The  color  is  often  red,  changing  to  gray  where  irrigation 
has  been  practiced,  but  much  of  the  soil  is  of  an  ashy  white  color, 
similar  to  that  of  bottom  lands  generally.  In  many  of  the  lower 
situated  plains,  the  soils  are  blackish  or  dark  gray,  especially  so  where 
stable  or  other  manures  have  been  used  for  years. 

Many  vineyards  are  situated  on  the  hillsides  or  on  the  rolling  lands, 
where  the  gravelly  soils  produce  raisins  of  smaller  size  and  in  less 
quantity,  but  sweeter  and  finer  flavored.  But  the  largest  bulk  of  the 
vineyards  are  on  comparatively  level  land,  which  can  be  and  which  is 
irrigated.  The  raisins  produced  on  these  low  grounds  in  the  moist  and 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  17 

cool  valleys  are  larger,  but  not  of  equal  flavor  and  sweetness.  In  wet 
seasons,  the  hillsides  are  preferred,  the  valley  lands  then  being  too  wet 
and  cold.  Accordingly,  as  the  seasons  are  wet  and  cold,  or  dry  and 
warm,  the  various  localities  produce  raisins  of  different  qualities, which 
again  are  valued  and  paid  for  differently.  The  extent  of  the  valley  or 
plain  lands  decides  the  extent  of  the  raisin  districts,  and  of  late  years 
the  rolling  vineyards  have  decreased  in  quantity,  while  those  on  the 
plains  have  increased,  until  at  the  present  time  almost  all  the  plain 
lands  are  occupied  with  raisin  vineyards,  especially  in  the  Denia  sub- 
district. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Denia  and  its  surroundings  is  rather  cold 
and  windy;  damaging  spring  frosts,  as  well  as  early  fall  rains,  fre- 
quently interfere  with  the  setting  of  the  grapes  and  with  the  harvest- 
ing of  the  crop;  it  has  even  happened  several  times  that  the  entire 
crop  has  been  seriously  injured  by  one  of  these,  or  by  both  causes 
combined.  Farther  north,  or  in  the  Valencia  district  proper,  the 
climate  is  milder,  and  frost  is  rare.  Oranges  are  here  at  home,  while 
the  culture  of  raisin  grapes  becomes  less  every  year.  North  of  Castel- 
lon  the  climatic  conditions  are  such  that  no  raisin  culture  is  possible. 

As  compared  with  the  climate  of  Malaga,  that  of  Denia  is  much  less 
favorable  to  the  raisin  grape.  The  production  of  sun-dried  and 
undipped  raisins  in  Denia  is  not  possible,  and,  although  it  has  been 
attempted  several  times,  it  has  seldom  succeeded.  The  rainfall  of 
Denia  averages  twelve  inches  per  year.  The  rainiest  months  are  those 
of  November,  February  and  April,  but  the  heaviest  rainfall  at  one 
time  occurs  quite  frequently  in  the  first  week  of  September,  while 
light  showers  are  not  uncommon  in  August,  at  that  time  doing  much 
damage  to  the  grapes  or  the  just  exposed  raisins. 

Irrigation. — Not  only  is  irrigation  necessary  to  grow  the  vines  suc- 
cessfully and  to  produce  an  abundance  of  grapes,  but  the  irrigation 
in  the  province  of  Valencia  is  necessary  to  the  health  and  longevity  of 
the  vines.  Nowhere  else  in  Spain  is  the  water  so  abundant,  and  no 
saving  of  the  water  is  necessary  in  the  majority  of  the  districts. 
Through  an  abundance  of  water,  thp  soil  on  the  lowlands  has  now 
filled  up  to  such  an  extent,  that  In  the  best  vineyards  the  surface 
water  is  only  from  five  to  eight  feet  from  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Those  vines  which  could  not  be  irrigated  have  gradually  become  dis- 
eased, and  the  hillside  vineyards  are  being  rapidly  abandoned  and 
devoted  to  something  else.  Upon  the  abundance  and  constancy  of  the 
water  depends  the  prosperity  of  the  whole  province,  and  there  is 
hardly  a  more  prosperous  country  in  Spain.  To  show  the  close  con-' 
nection  between  irrigation  and  raisin  production  in  Spain,  it  will  no 
doubt  interest  many  to  know  something  of  the  irrigation  system 
and  the  irrigation  districts  of  the  province  of  Valencia,  than  which  no 
more  important  ones  are  found  in  Spain. 

The  district  of  Alicante  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  river 
Monegre,  and  the  Elche  district  from  the  river  Minalapo.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  province  is  the  Murviado  irrigation  district,  taking 
its  water  from  the  river  Palencia.  The  Jucar  irrigation  district,  situated 
immediately  south  of  the  huerta  of  Valencia,  takes  its  water  from  the 


18  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

Jucar  river,  distributing  850  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  upon  some 
50,000  acres  of  land. 

The  Valencia  irrigation  district  consists  of  26,350  acres  of  land 
close  to  the  town  of  Valencia,  and  is  watered  by  the  river  Guadala- 
viar,  or,  as  it  is  generally  called,  the  Tuna.  The  water  is  distributed 
through  eight  canals,  each  carrying  from  35  to  120  cubic  feet  of 
water  per  second,  the  combined  low- water  discharge  of  all  the  canals 
being  from  250  to  350  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second.  Of  the  import- 
ance of  irrigation  in  this  district,  we  can  judge  when  we  learn  that  the 
above  26,350  acres  contain  72,000  inhabitants  and  sixty- two  villages, 
or  an  average  of  1,774  people  per  square  mile,  not  including  the  city 
of  Valencia  itself,  with  a  population  of  120,000  people.  It  is  also 
remarkable  that  this  enormous  population  on  a  territory  not  as  large  as 
the  arable  land  surrounding  any  one  of  our  principal  inland  towns  in 
California,  is  not  alone  due  to  the  irrigation  and  care  of  the  land,  but 
to  the  minute  subdivision  of  the  land,  which  makes  this  culture  and 
irrigation  possible.  It  is  a  practical  illustration  of  the  value  of  the 
colony  system  as  inaugurated  in  California,  showing  what  we  can 
expect  of  our  inland  plains  when  they  become  fully  irrigated  and  the 
land  properly  subdivided. 

Quality  of  the  Raisins. — It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  grapes 
grown  in  Denia  are  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  which  were  introduced 
there  by  the  Moors.  Farther  south,  in  the  Alicante  district,  other 
varieties  are  more  common,  but  play  no  important  part  in  the  raisin 
production  of  the  district.  The  Valencia  raisins  are  inferior  to  those 
of  Malaga,  the  want  of  heat  requiring  them  to  be  dipped  in  lye  before 
drying.  This,  again,  gives  these  raisins  a  peculiar  reddish,  semi-trans- 
parent color,  which  unfits  them  for  table  raisins.  The  Valencia  raisins 
are  principally  used  for  cooking;  even  the  best  grades  of  Valencias 
are  inferior  to  the  inferior  grades  of  Malaga  raisins.  During  the  last 
season  (1889)  large  quantities  of  Denia  grapes  were  cured  on  the 
Malaga  style,  and  with  great  success.  Large  quantities  of  such  sun- 
dried  Denias  were  sent  in  bulk  to  Malaga,  and  there  repacked  for 
export  to  the  United  States,  the  Malaga  crop  having  so  diminished  that 
the  usual  demand  could  not  be  supplied.  Years  in  which  such  sun- 
drying  is  possible  in  Denia  are  rare. 

Planting  and  Care. — The  Muscat  cuttings  are  planted  generally  in 
February.  The  best  cuttings  are  considered  to  be  those  taken  from 
vines  at  least  six  years  old.  The  cuttings  are  set  at  various  distances 
according  to  the  richness  of  the  soil.  The  richer  the  soil  the  less 
room  is  given  the  vines.  Thus  the  vines  are  set  either  five  by  eleven 
feet  or  five  by  twelve  feet,  or,  in  other  words,  they  are  set  in  rows 
eleven  or  twelve  feet  apart,  with  the  vines  five  feet  apart  in  the  row. 
The  depth  of  the  cutting  is  regulated  by  the  moisture  of  the  surface 
soil,  but  averages  eighteen  inches.  The  vines  begin  to  bud  in  the 
middle  of  March,  and  are  from  the  start  subject  to  great  care  and  con- 
stant cultivation.  The  first  operation  after  the  cutting  is  planted  is  to 
cut  off  the  top  bud  as  soon  as  the  vine  starts  to  grow,  leaving  the  two 
shoots  only  from  the  two  lower  buds.  No  more  shoots  are  allowed  to 
grow  the  first  year.  Next  winter  the  smaller  of  these  two  branches 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  19 

is  cut  off  completely  and  the  remaining  branch  is  pruned  back  to  two 
eyes.  In  the  second  year  the  young  shoots  from  the  vine  are  allowed 
to  grow  to  ten  inches  or  so  long,  when  all  are  cut  away  except  two 
of  the  strongest.  Next  winter  again  these  are  pruned  so  to  leave 
only  two  eyes  on  each,  or  four  buds  on  the  whole  vine.  In  the  suc- 
ceeding years  the  branches  are  gradually  increased  in  number,  but 
always  pruned  back  to  two  eyes.  After  the  vine  is  five  years  old,  it 
is  seldom  increased  as  to  branches;  it  is  then  always  pruned  back  to 
the  same  number  of  spurs.  It  can  be  said  that  the  Denia  growers 
pay  less  attention  to  the  quality  of  the  raisins,  and  prune  more  to 
attain  quantity.  They  leave  more  spurs  on  their  vines  than  do  those 
in  Malaga,  and  in  this  respect  resemble  many  of  our  own  California 
growers,  who  frequently  leave  from  twelve  to  fifteen  spurs  on  a  vine. 
The  vines  in  Denia  are  also  raised  higher  above  the  ground  than  in 
Malaga,  very  much  as  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of  pruning  our  own 
vines.  At  the  age  of  three  years  the  vines  come  into  bearing;  but 
no  fine  raisins  are  made  until  the  vines  are  five  or  six  years  old. 

Dipping  and  Scalding. — The  dipping  process  is  one  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  gives  the  peculiar  characteristics  to  the  Valencia  or 
Denia  raisins.  As  a  similar  process  will  sometime  or  other  be  more 
generally  used  in  California,  a  more  detailed  description  may  prove 
interesting  to  California  growers.  We  can  probably  not  do  better 
than  to  imitate  them,  although  in  mechanical  appliances  we  will 
readily  improve  upon  their  methods.  The  dipping  is  always  done  at 
the  drying  ground  or  secadero.  The  larger  part  of  the  dipping  appa- 
ratus, or  the  kettles,  are  placed  under  the  ground  so  as  to  save  heat 
and  fuel.  A  trench  eight  or  nine  feet  in  length  is  dug  to  the  depth  of 
three  or  four  feet.  At  one  end  is  built  a  chimney  protruding  three  or 
four  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  In  the  other  end  of  the 
trench  is  built  a  brick  wall  with  an  opening  for  feeding  the  fire. 
Some  trenches  are  lined  inside  with  bricks,  making  them  more  per- 
manent and  solid.  On  the  top  of  this  flue,  and  on  a  level  with  the 
ground,  are  built  the  kettles  or  boilers,  containing  not  less  than  twenty 
gallons  each.  The  boiler  nearest  the  fire  entrance  is  destined  to  con- 
tain a  solution  of  lye  or  ashes,  the  oneliext  to  the  chimney  being  for 
boiling  water  only. 

The  lye  is  made  from  the  ashes  of  burnt  vine  cuttings,  together  with 
lime  and  sometimes  some  salt,  by  men  who  have  acquired  the  art 
from  years  of  experience,  and  who  know  by  the  appearance  of  the 
scalded  grapes  whether  the  solution  is  too  strong  or  too  weak. 
If  too  weak,  the  skins  of  the  grapes  will  be  insufficiently  cut,  which 
will  delay  the  drying  of  the  grapes,  and  cause  them  to  rot  if  the 
weather  is  damp  and  foggy.  If,  again,  the  lye  solution  is  too  strong, 
the  skin  will  be  destroyed  and  the  berries  seriously  injured. 

The  grapes  to  be  dipped  should  be  perfectly  ripe.  If  dipped  before, 
they  will  become  inferior  both  as  to  color  and  taste.  The  perfect 
ripeness  is  a  most  important  point.  The  grapes  are  picked  in  baskets 
of  about  ten  pounds  each,  and  carried  to  the  scalder.  The  man 
nearest  him  on  the  right  fills  a  perforated  ladle  with  about  twenty 
pounds  of  the  grapes.  The  ladle  is  made  either  of  wire  netting  or  of 


20  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

tin  or  zinc,  with  large  perforated  holes  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
wide.  There  is  a  scalder  at  each  boiler.  The  first  scalder  dips  the 
grapes  in  the  scalding  water  for  a  second,  and  immediately  hands  them 
to  the  second  scalder,  who  dips  the  same  ladle  in  the  boiling  lye 
solution  for  not  over  two  seconds.  The  grapes  are  then  carefully 
turned  out  on  trays  to  dry. 

The  dipping  first  in  scalding  water  is  of  the  greatest  importance, 
both  in  washing  off  the  dust  of  the  grapes  and  in  preparing  them  to 
receive  the  alkali  wash  with  more  effect.  Since  the  hot-water  process 
was  introduced,  the  Valencia  raisins  have  materially  improved  in 
quality.  The  grapes  are  never  rinsed  in  cold  water  after  being 
dipped,  and  it  is  more  than  likely  that  the  lye  prevents  molding,  as, 
according  to  A.  B.  Butler,  dipped  raisins  are  sometimes  exposed  to 
the  rain  for  three  weeks  without  being  totally  ruined.  In  California, 
our  dipped  and  washed  raisins  spoil  quickly  if  exposed  to  rain.  The 
object  of  dipping  is,  of  course,  to  slightly  crack  the  skins  so  as  to 
allow  the  water  to  readily  evaporate.  Dipped  raisins  dry  sometimes 
in  five  days,  while  undipped  raisins  would  require  as  many  weeks. 
Efforts  to  produce  sun-dried  raisins  without  dipping  them  have 
repeatedly  been  made  in  Denia;  but  they  are  invariably  spoiled  by 
the  rain,  and  lately  two  firms  were  ruined  in  their  attempts  to  dispense 
with  the  dipping  process. 

Drying  and  Curing. — After  the  grapes  have  been  properly  dipped, 
the  drying  proceeds  very  quickly.  The  grapes  are  immediately  spread 
on  cane  trays  or  canezos,  about  six  feet  long  by  three  or  four  feet 
wide.  These  cane  trays  are  made  of  the  common  Italian  reed  or 
Arundo  donax,  which  grows  everywhere,  even  in  California,  and  is 
here  incorrectly  known  as  bamboo.  The  trays  are  made  either  of 
split  or  of  entire  canes  tied  strongly  together.  These  tra}^s  are  placed 
flat  on  the  ground,  only  leaving  enough  space  around  each  one  to 
allow  the  workmen  free  access  to  the  tray  on  all  sides.  After  having 
been  exposed  to  the  sun  for  three  days,  the  grapes  are  turned,  in 
order  to  dry  evenly  on  both  sides.  On  the  fifth  day,  the  raisins  are 
turned  again,  and,  if  the  weather  has  been  favorable,  many  of  the 
raisins  are  then  ready  to  pack.  A  day  or  two  after  this,  all  the 
raisins  are  ready,  and  are  collected  and  housed.  If,  again,  the 
weather  has  been  unfavorable,  the  drying  is  very  much  delayed.  At 
the  approach  of  rain,  the  mats  or  trays  are  taken  up  and  piled  on 
the  top  of  each  other,  under  sheds  previously  made.  Every  drying 
ground  has  stationary  appliances  for  this  purpose.  These  simply 
consist  of  poles  stuck  in  the  ground,  and  extending  five  or  six  feet 
above  the  same.  Other  cross-rafters  or  scantlings  are  nailed  between 
the  poles,  thus  forming  rows  of  roofless  sheds  eight  or  nine  feet  wide, 
of  greater  or  shorter  length.  Painted  c'anvas,  or  simply  mats  or  empty 
reed  trays,  are  used  as  covers,  under  which  the  raisin  trays  are  piled. 
Under  and  between  each  tray  are  placed  five  little  cubes  of  wood,  for 
the  purpose  of  lifting  the  tray  and  preventing  it  from  pressing  too 
heavily  on  the  grapes  underneath. 

Packing  and  Disposing  of  the  Crop. — When  at  last  the  raisins  are 
dried,  they  are  either  stored  by  the  producer,  or,  as  is  more  generally 


Views  from  Col.  Wm.  Forsyte's  Raisin  Vineyard,  Near  Fresno:    Residence,  Lake, 
Raisin  Dryer,  Packing  House. 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  21 

the  case,  are  taken  to  the  merchant  or  packer  who  has  supplied  the 
grower's  wants  during  the  year  in  anticipation  of  the  coming  crop. 
There  are  thus  a  number  of  special  packers  in  Denia,  who  own  large 
and  splendid  packing-houses  in  which  the  crop  is  yearly  handled.  The 
grower  never  packs  himself,  the  enhanced  value  of  the  raisins  not 
being  sufficient  to  warrant  the  trouble.  One  of  the  best  and  by  far 
the  largest  packing-houses  in  Denia  is  owned  by  J.  D.  Arquimbau. 
A  more  perfectly  equipped  establishment  is  not  found  anywhere  else. 

All  of  the  packing  is  done  by  women,  while  the  men  do  the  carting 
of  the  raisins  from  the  vineyards  to  the  packing-houses.  During  the 
balance  of  the  year,  when  there  is  no  more  work  in  the  packing-houses, 
these  very  men  occupy  themselves  with  the  sardine  fishery,  while 
their  wives  then  dress  the  sardines  and  pack  them  in  oil.  They  have 
thus  work  all  the  year  round, — an  absolute  necessity  in  a  country 
where  the  wages  are  so  small,  and  where  the  poor  man  has  no  chance 
to  save  up  a  capital.  The  wages  paid  for  packing  in  Denia  is  only 
fifteen  cents  per  day;  while  in  Malaga  the  same  work  commands  from 
forty  to  sixty  cents  per  day.  In  some  of  the  warehouses  in  Denia, 
from  two  to  three  hundred  women  are  employed,  as  well  as  a  number 
of  men.  The  boxes  now  used  are  halves  of  twenty -eight  pounds,  or 
quarters  of  fourteen  pounds  each.  The  large  or  whole  boxes  of  fifty- 
six  pounds  each  are  no  longer  in  use.  The  raisins  are  all  packed  ' '  off- 
stalk,"  or,  as  we  say,  "loose."  Bunch  or  stem  raisins,  or  "on-stalk  " 
raisins,  are  seldom  seen.  This  great  improvement  in  packing  is  of 
recent  origin,  and  is  due  entirely  to  the  influence  of  English  merchants. 
Some  thirty  years  ago,  the  raisin  industry  of  Valencia  had  so  deterior- 
ated, that  it  threatened  to  entirely  cease.  The  cause  of  the  deteriora- 
tion was  principally  the  habit  of  the  buyers  to  pay  for  crops,  not 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  raisins,  but  according  to  the  quantity. 
The  small  farmer  with  a  few  hundred  pounds  of  raisins  carefully  cured 
was  paid  less,  or  at  least  not  any  more,  than  the  man  who  had  hun- 
dreds of  tons  carelessly  cured.  As  a  consequence,  it  was  to  no  one's 
interest  to  take  any  particular  pains  in  curing.  The  raisins  deterior- 
ated; no  care  was  paid  to  packing;  anything,  almost,  stalks,  dirt  and 
bruised  berries  were  dumped  in  boxes  together;  brands,  trade-marks 
and  labels  were  unknown.  The  whole  business  was  apparently  going 
to  ruin.  The  orders  from  England  became  less  and  less  every  year. 
Those  from  America  almost  ceased.  The  ' '  equality  price  "  or  ' '  aver- 
age price,' '  which  has  been  so  much  in  vogue  in  California,  actually 
ruined  the  Valencia  raisin  industry.  We  ought  to  take  a  lesson  from 
them,  and  change  this  system  in  time,  or  we  will  be  in  the  same  bad  fix 
as  they  were. 

The  improvement  in  Valencia  raisins  was  entirely  due  to  the  ener- 
getic efforts  of  English  gentlemen.  Mr.  George  Graham,'  agent  for  an 
English  firm,  established  himself  in  Valencia,  investigated  the  raisin 
business,  and,  seeing  the  true  cause  of  the  ruin,  set  himself  to 
work  to  remedy  the  same.  He  introduced  better  methods  in 
growing,  curing  and  packing;  and  through  his  efforts  a  better 
price  was  paid  for  a  better  grade  of  raisins,  and  it  was  not 
long  before  the  raisin  business  was  on  an  entirely  different  footing. 


M  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

The  object  of  the  grower  was  from  that  on,  not  only  to  increase 
the  quantity,  but  to  increase  the  quality  as  well.  To  begin  with,  the 
raisins  were  shipped  off-stalk  or  loose;  but  the  boxes  were  not  faced. 
Now  the  raisin  boxes  are  all  faced,  and  the  raisins  are  carefully 
selected  and  assorted.  As  a  consequence,  the  Denia  trade  has  of  late 
years  increased  enormously,  until  at  present  all  the  land  available  has 
been  planted  to  raisins.  There  is  at  present  but  little  or  no  first-class 
raisin  land  left  in  Denia,  and  it  looks  as  if  the  raisin  production  there 
could  not  be  further  expanded. 

Export  and  Production. — Although  the  raisin  industry  had  long 
existed  in  the  province  of  Valencia,  it  was  only  in  late  years  that  it 
assumed  an  importance.  They  were  already  known  as  Duradnae  by 
the  Romans.  Re-introduced  or  improved  by  the  Arabs  or  Moors,  it 
soon  became  a  prominent  industry,  and  the  export  of  raisins  to  Eng- 
land was  already  of  some  consequence  in  the  time  of  William  and 
Mary.  In  the  year  1638,  Lewis  Roberts,  in  his  merchant  map  of 
commerce,  informs  us  that  Denia  raisins  cost  eighteen  rials  or  three 
shillings  per  hundred  weight.  In  1664,  Gandia  raisins  were  quite 
famous,  and  were  known  as  Pasas.  At  the  end  of  the  last  century, 
the  raisins  from  Denia  and  L,iria  reached  forty  thousand  quintals,  or 
two  thousand  tons,  distributed  as  follows:  Spain,  six  thousand;  France, 
six  thousand;  England,  twenty-eight  thousand, — equal  to  one  million, 
four  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  boxes,  forty  thousand  quintals,  or 
two  thousand  tons.  In  1862,  the  raisin  export  from  Valencia  had 
dwindled  down  to  seven  thousand  tons.  In  1876,  it  had  again  risen 
to  nineteen  thousand  tons,  and  in  1883  to  forty  thousand  tons.  Of 
these,  nine  hundred  and  seventy-nine  thousand  boxes  were  exported 
to  the  United  States,  one  million,  three  hundred  and  eighty-five  thou- 
sand were  sent  to  England,  and  four  hundred  and  thirty-six  thousand 
found  their  way  to  other  parts  of  Europe  and  Spain.  In  1888,  the  yield 
was  two  million,  three  hundred  and  sixteen  thousand  boxes  of  twenty- 
eight  pounds  each,  equal  to  thirty-two  thousand,  four  hundred  and 
twenty-four  tons.  If  packed  in  twenty-pound  boxes,  this  crop  would 
have  equaled  three  million,  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand,  four 
hundred  boxes,  or  four  times  as  much  as  California  produced  at  the 
same  time.  The  crop  of  1889  is  calculated  to  have  reached  two  million, 
eight  hundred  thousand  boxes  of  twenty-eight  pounds  each. 

When  we  remember  that  this  class  of  raisins  is  as  yet  hardly  pro- 
duced in  California,  and  that  the  nine  hundred  and  seventy-nine  thou- 
sand boxes  or  more  imported  could  and  should  be  supplied  by  us,  it 
would  seem  that  our  fears  of  overproduction  will  not  immediately  be 
realized.  The  tendency  of  the  raisin  market  is  now  to  supplant  these 
Valencia  dipped  raisins  with  California  undipped  or  sun-dried  raisins, 
the  California  Sultanas  being  considered  superior  for  the  same  purpose 
that  Valencias  were  formerly  used. 

CORINTH  AND   CURRANTS. 

Historical  and  Geographical  Notes. — The  principal  and  only  raisins 
of  any  great  commercial  importance  which  are  produced  by  Greece 
are  the  currants.  We  have  already  spoken  of  their  name,  and  its 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  23 

supposed  origin  from  the  town  of  Corinth,  and  of  their  having  been 
mentioned  by  Pliny  in  the  year  75  A.  D.  The  currants  must  thus 
very  early  have  been  of  considerable  importance  as  a  commercial 
product,  although  the  great  increase  in  their  production  is  of  more 
recent  date.  The  crusades  which  brought  the  nations  of  the  North 
in  contact  with  the  Orient  and  the  South  also  spread  the  knowledge 
of  the  Grecian  currants  to  the  distant  parts  of  Europe.  After  the 
Latin  conquest,  currants  became  a  commercial  article,  and  we  have 
every  reason  to  suppose  that,  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  currants  had  reached  the  English  shores,  and  that  in  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  Knglish  trade  was  fully  estab- 
lished. Raysins  of  Corauntz  were  quoted  in  1374  at  two  pence  and 
three  farthings  per  pound,  equivalent  to  one  dollar  and  twenty-five 
cents  in  our  money  at  its  present  value.  In  1513,  the  first  Knglish 
consul  was  appointed  at  Chios,  and  from  that  time  on  a  direct  traffic 
was  maintained  between  the  Grecian  Islands  and  the  North  of  Europe. 
In  1582,  Hakluyt  writes  that  efforts  had  been  made  to  introduce  the 
coren  plant  or  vine  into  England,  but  that  the  same  failed  to  fruit. 
The  first  introduction  of  the  Zante  vine  into  England  is  supposed  by 
Anderson  to  have  taken  place  in  1533.  In  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  currant  traders  were  in  full  intercourse  with  the  Venetians 
on  the  Island  of  Zante,  and  the  Turks  on  the  mainland  or  Morea.  In 
1581,  the  Levant  Company  received  a  monopoly  in  the  trade  of  the 
small  fruits  called  currants,  being  the  raysins  of  Corinth.  According 
to  Wheler,  who  traveled  in  the  Ionian  Islands  in  1675,  Zante  pro- 
duced enough  currants  to  charge  five  or  six  vessels,  Cephalonia  three 
or  four,  and  Nathaligo,  Missolonghi  and  Patros  one  each.  Some  few 
were  also  brought  down  from  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto. 

As  to  the  native  home  of  the  currants,  opinions  have  considerably 
differed.  Some  have  supposed  Zante  or  Naxos  to  have  been  the  origi- 
nal home  of  this  grape;  while  others,  with  better  reasons,  have  held 
that  their  original  home  was  Corinth.  Beaujour,  who  was  French 
consul  in  Greece  in  1790,  says:  "The  fruit  is  not  indigenous  to  Morea. 
No  writer  before  the  sixteenth  century  mentions  it,  and  the  result  of 
my  inquiries  is  that  the  currant  came  from  Naxos  into  the  Morea  about 
1580.  It  is  true  no  such  plant  now  exists  in  Naxos,  but  it  has  simi- 
larly disappeared  from  the  territory  of  Corinth,  though  it  is  very  certain 
it  was  cultivated  there  in  former  days,  when  the  Venetians  held  the 
country."  This  account  does  not  agree  with  the  statements  of  Comte 
Grasset  St.  Sauveur,  consul  to  the  Ionian  Islands  from  France  in  1781. 
He  states,  in  his  History  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  that  *  *  the  first  plants 
were  imported  from  Corinth  to  Zante  about  two  centuries  ago ' '  (or  about 
1580).  There  are  no  exact  records  of  the  time  or  of  the  introducer; 
but  the  date  is  fixed  by  the  regulations  of  the  Senate  of  Venice  relating 
to  custom  duties.  It  is  likely  this  introduction  took  place  not  much 
before  1553,  and  was  caused  by  the  hostility  of  the  Turks,  who  then 
held  Morea,  to  the  merchant  vessels  of  the  other  nations  of  Europe, 
who  in  fact  forbade  them  any  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  the 
principal  export  place  for  the  currants.  Thus  John  Locke,  who  in 
I553  describes  Zante,  speaks  of  other  products  of  the  island,  but  not 
of  currants. 


24  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

Hakluyt  states  that,  in  1586,  the  chief  commodities  of  the  island 
were  "  oyle  and  currants.'*  The  latter,  then,  must  have  been  intro- 
duced some  time  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Lithgow,  a 
Scotch  traveler  who  in  1609  visited  the  islands  and  published  an 
account  of  the  same  in  1633,  informs  us  that,  besides  oyle  and  wine, 
Zante  produced  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  chickens  of  currants, 
each  chicken  of  gold  being  equal  to  nine  shillings  of  English  money. 
And  he  adds  that  the  custom  duties  on  those  currants  amounted  to 
twenty-two  thousand  piasters  (one  piaster  is  equivalent  to  six  shillings), 
a  sum  of  money  which  those  Islanders  could  not  have  afforded  (they 
having  been,  not  above  sixty  years  ago,  but  a  base,  beggarly  people, 
and  in  an  obscure  place)  if  it  were  not  that  in  England  there  are  some 
who  cannot  digest  bread,  etc.,  without  these  currants.  This  seems  to 
imply  that,  since  the  introduction  of  the  currant  culture  in  the  Island 
of  Zante  about  the  year  1550,  the  Zanteans  had  suddenly  become 
comparatively  wealthy.  So  suddenly  had  this  important  industry 
spread,  that  in  1610,  according  to  Sandys,  the  chief  export  of  both 
Zante  and  Cephalonia  was  currants.  In  1612,  Cory  at  says  that 
4 'Zante  is  famous  for  its  wine,  oile  and  currants."  Fynes  Moryson, 
in  his  "Itinerary"  published  in  1617,  states  that  "  the  English  mer- 
chant vessels  exported  currants  from  Zante  and  Cephalonia,  and  from 
Petrasso  in  the  Gulfe  of  Corinth."  Tavernier  says,  in  1678,  that, 
"  Corinth  exports  great  quantities  of  currants.  Patras  does  the  same, 
which  is  all  the  trade  from  those  two  places."  In  1682,  Wheler  states 
that  ' '  the  ports  of  Patros,  Nathaligo  and  Missolonghi,  all  three 
together  having  enough  to  lade  only  one  good  ship  every  year." 
Randolph,  in  1689,  mentions  that  currants  were  first  planted  on  the 
plains  of  Corinth,  and  that  the  plain  about  Vostizza  produced  corn, 
currants  and  wine.  Of  Zante,  he  says  that  it  produced  two  thousand 
tons  of  currants.  Thus  it  will  seem  as  if,  through  the  fostering  care  of 
the  Venetians,  the  currant  trade  was  transplanted  from  the  mainland 
of  Morea  to  the  Islands  of  Zante  and  Cephalonia,  there  to  become  of 
almost  national  importance.  Until  the  Turks  were  expelled  from 
Morea,  the  latter  never  made  any  serious  efforts  to  recover  the  lost 
trade.  First  in  later  times  the  culture  of  currants  has  again  spread  on 
the  mainland,  especially  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth, 
and  to-day  the  combined  production  of  the  Morean  vineyards  is 
largely  in  excess  of  that  of  the  Ionian  Islands. 

In  our  times  the  currants  are  exported  either  from  the  mainland  of 
Greece,  the  Morea,  the  ancient  Peloponnesus,  or  from  the  Grecian 
Islands, — Cephalonia  and  Zante.  In  Morea,  the  principal  ports  for  the 
exportation  of  the  currants  are  Patras  and  Vostizza,  although  other 
ports  export  a  few.  Even  the  Islands  of  Ithaca  and  Santa  Maura 
contribute  a  few.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  extend  the  culture  of  the 
currant  vine,  and  introduce  it  to  other  islands,  but  not  with  any  great 
degree  of  success.  This  is  entirely  attributed  to  climatic  conditions. 

Characteristics  and  Quality. — The  currants  are  small,  seedless  raisins 
produced  from  the  currant  grape,  which  again  is  characterized  by  small 
clusters,  which,  when  perfect,  are  very  compact  like  the  heads  of 
Indian  corn  or  maize.  The  skin  of  the  berries  is  thin,  the  pulp  very 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  25 

sweet,  with  a  strong  flavor  and  aroma.  The  raisins  are  similarly 
aromatic  and  very  sweet,  sometimes  semi-transparent,  but  generally 
dark  violet.  The  flavor  of  the  raisins  is  entirely  distinct  from  the 
Muscatel,  and  is  very  superior  to  that  of  the  also  seedless  Suhana 
raisins. 

Soil  and  Irrigation. — The  soil  best  suited  to  the  currant  grape  is  a 
calcareous  marl,  which  must  be  of  good  depth,  loose,  and  easily 
worked.  Such  marls  are  also  prized  for  their  great  power  of  retain- 
ing moisture.  But  vineyards  are  planted  in  Cephalonia,  Zante  and 
Ithaca  in  the  most  different  soils  and  situations.  They  are  found  in 
gray  marls,  in  red  clay,  on  the  plains  and  among  the  hills,  in  fact, 
in  the  most  widely  different  situations.  The  soil  of  Zante  contains  a 
small  percentage  of  sulphate  of  lime  or  gypsum,  which  is  by  many 
considered  indispensable  for  the  successful  and  profitable  culture 
of  the  currant  vine.  The  currant  vine  thrives  especially  in  low  and 
rich  land  which  can  be  irrigated,  and  irrigation  is  quite  essential  to 
the  perfect  development  of  the  grapes.  Many  vineyards,  however, 
are  not  irrigated,  the  irrigation,  of  course,  only  being  practicable  on 
the  plains.  This  irrigation  is  practiced  from  October  to  the  end  of 
December,  often  while  the  natural  rainfall  supplies  the  artificial  water- 
ing. The  lands  are  generally  small  freeholdings,  owned  by  the 
peasants.  The  most  valuable  currant  vineyards  are  situated  on  the 
rich  and  level  valley  lands. 

Preparation  of  the  Land  for  Irrigation. — The  preparation  of  the 
land  for  a  currant  vineyard  is  expensive,  as  the  land  is  hardly  ever 
level  enough  to  admit  of  the  vines  being  immediately  planted.  The 
surface  is  therefore  first  leveled  and  divided  up  in  smaller  cheeks  or 
flats,  each  one  surrounded  by  a  bank.  The  whole  is  covered  with  a 
network  of  ditches,  which  are  necessary  for  the  perfect  irrigation  of 
the  soil.  Where  there  is  water  enough,  the  vineyards  are  irrigated  in 
November  and  December,  and  are  then  flooded  as  often  as  practicable, 
the  water  sometimes  standing  on  the  ground  for  weeks  in  succession. 
In  perfectly  arranged  vineyards,  the  irrigation  is  so  managed  that  the 
water  flows  from  one  check  to  another,  and  is  first  shut  off  at  the 
advent  of  the  New  Year,  when  the  pruning  and  cultivation  begins. 
By  this  plentiful  irrigation,  the  ground  becomes  thoroughly  soaked, 
and  remains  saturated  until  the  next  season,  when  rain  again  sets 
in  and  fills  the  irrigation  canals.  No  summer  irrigation  is  used  in 
old  vineyards,  and  in  young  vineyards  only  in  case  of  great  necessity. 

Distances  of  the  Currant  Vines. — The  vines  are  set  at  various  dis- 
tances, in  some  places  four  feet  each  way,  in  others  again  six  by 
ten,  giving  a  various  number  of  from  740  to  2,622  to  the  acre.  In 
some  places,  the  old  practice  of  planting  the  vines  in  groups  of  four 
still  exists.  Each  group  consists  of  four  vines  one  and  a  half  feet 
apart,  and  each  group  distant  six  feet  from  each  other  either  way. 
Of  late,  however,  the  vines  are  planted  farther  apart,  probably  because 
the  soil  is  becoming  exhausted,  a  favorite  way  being  to  have  the  vines 
closer  one  way  than  the  other. 

Care  of  Cuttings,  Planting  and  Grafting.  —  Great  importance  is 
attached  to  procuring  cuttings  from  a  distance,  or  in  getting  new 
strains.  Cuttings  from  the  nearest  vineyard  are  never  used,  as  they 


26  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

are  considered  to  produce  inferior  vines,  and  not  do  as  well.  To 
procure  cuttings  or  vines,  the  old  vines  are  sometimes  cut  a  few 
inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  causing  the  parent  plant  to 
throw  off  numerous  suckers  or  shoots,  which  the  following  winter  are 
separated  and  used  as  we  do  rooted  vines  here  in  California.  Three 
or  four  years  will  elapse  before  they  come  into  regular  bearing.  Some 
vineyards  are  produced  by  grafting  the  black  currant  on  the  wine 
grape,  and  many  wine  vineyards  that  do  not  pay  are  thus  transformed 
into  paying  raisin  vineyards.  The  grafted  vines  come  into  bearing 
much  sooner  than  those  grown  from  cuttings.  The  grafting  is  per- 
formed in  Zante  as  follows:  The  soil  is  dug  away  from  the  main 
trunk  of  the  old  vine  to  the  depth  of  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches, 
and  the  trunk  cut  off  square  at  the  bottom  of  the  pit.  Two  or  three 
scions  are  then  inserted  in  the  trunk,  and  made  to  slightly  project 
above  the  ground,  in  no  case  with  more  than  two  or  three  eyes. 
Clay  is  then  applied  to  the  joint  of  the  graft,  and  the  trunk  slightly 
covered  with  leaves,  and  the  hole  then  filled  up  with  soil.  The 
grafting  is  done  in  the  spring,  and  the  cuttings  must  be  kept  dormant 
in  dark  and  cool  cellars. 

Pruning  the  Vines. — The  pruning  is  done  in  the  fall,  just  as  soon  as 
the  leaves  have  fallen,  and  is  performed  in  two  parts.  In  December, 
the  vines  are  cleaned  of  all  small,  weakly  or  dead  branches,  and  at 
that  time  only  the  large  and  strong  branches  are  left.  In  February, 
the  regular  cutting  back  commences,  two  or  three  eyes  being  left  on 
every  spur.  There  are  as  many  different  ideas  of  pruning  the  vines 
in  Greece  as  there  are  in  California,  each  one  having  his  favorite 
methods  and  theories  as  to  what  is  proper  and  what  is  not.  Some 
vineyardists  prefer  to  delay  the  second  pruning  until  after  the  vines 
have  started  to  bud  out,  and,  when  the  young  shoots  are  two  weeks 
old,  the  old  wood  is  so  cut  that  the  bleeding  of  the  vine  will  not  run 
down  on  the  bud.  Bleeding  is  at  any  time  considered  injurious. 
The  principal  pruning  is  therefore  conducted  in  February,  as  being 
the  time  most  suitable  to  the  currant  grape  and  conducive  to  the  best 
crops.  Mr.  Manoti,  a  very  intelligent  Zanteote  currant  grower,  told 
Dr.  Davy  (Ionian  Islands,  page  343)  that  he  had  at  one  time  experi- 
mented with  pruning  the  currant  vine  at  different  times  of  the  year. 
Those  pruned  in  December  yielded  very  few  grapes,  which  were  large; 
those  pruned  in  April  gave  plenty,  but  very  small  berries.  Again, 
those  pruned  in  February  were  in  every  way  the  best.  Mr.  Manoti 
added  that  if  he  had  told  one  of  his  neighbors  of  his  experiments  they 
would  have  laughed  at  him,  and  said,  "Whoever  thinks  of  pruning 
the  uva  passa  (or  currant)  in  December  or  April. ' '  This  shows  how 
much  the  growers  are  opposed  to  experimenting  and  improving  upon 
the  methods  which  have  been  handed  down  to  them  from  their  fore- 
fathers. As  we  have  shown,  the  currant  vines  are  all  very  closely  pruned, 
very  much  in  the  same  way  as  our  Muscats.  Seldom  more  than  three 
spurs  are  allowed  to  remain,  each  one  with  two  or  three  eyes.  Sum- 
mer pruning  or  topping  the  branches  is  never  practiced  on  the  currant 
vines,  but  generally  on  the  wine  grapes.  On  the  contrary  the  currant 
branches  are  carefully  guarded,  and  in  order  that  they  may  not  break 
are  tied  to  stakes  from  four  to  five  feet  high. 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  27 

Care  of  the  Vineyard. — After  irrigation  is  over,  the  vineyards  are 
dug  over.  The  soil  is  dug  up  around  the  vines  and  placed  on  top  of 
the  ground  in  small  heaps,  which  process  is  considered  beneficial  both 
to  the  roots  of  the  vines  and  to  the  soil.  In  April,  this  soil  is  all  put 
back,  and  the  ground  leveled.  Each  vine  is  staked.  By  the  middle 
of  April,  the  vines  are  in  leaf.  By  the  middle  of  July,  the  first  fruit 
is  ripe,  and  by  the  middle  of  August  the  harvest  has  everywhere 
begun.  The  stakes  for  the  vines  are  imported  at  a  cost  of  $15  or  $16 
per  thousand,  and  constitute  the  most  expensive  item  in  the  construc- 
tion of  a  currant  vineyard. 

The  mildew  or  oidium,  which  some  fifty  years  ago  spread  all  over 
the  world,  destroyed  many  of  the  vineyards  before  the  sulphuring  was 
discovered  as  a  sure  remedy.  Sulphuring  the  vines  is  now  regularly 
practiced  in  all  the  vineyards;  but  there  is  a  popular  belief  that  the 
raisins  are  no  longer  of  the  same  fine  and  pure  flavor  as  they  used  to 
be  before  the  advent  of  the  oidium  and  the  sulphur. 

Ringing  the  Branches. — A  process  much  used  in  the  currant  vine- 
yards is  the  ringing  of  the  branches.  At  the  time  of  blossoming,  some 
of  the  main  branches  are  cut  in  such  a  way  that  a  small  ring  of  bark 
is  separated  from  the  branch  near  its  base.  The  sap  which  ascends 
in  the  interior  of  the  branch,  but  which  returns  by  the  bark,  is 
thus  prevented  from  returning,  and  must  remain  in  the  branch.  The 
effect  is  that  a  large  number  of  clusters  are  formed  with  berries  both 
larger  and  sweeter  than  those  not  thus  treated.  But  the  practice  is  not 
without  its  drawbacks.  In  the  dry  lands  of  Cephalonia,  where  it  was 
first  introduced,  it  was  soon  discovered  that  the  ringed  vines  began 
to  fail  after  two  or  three  years,  and  the  method  had  to  be  modified  or 
abandoned.  In  Morea,  where  the  soil  is  moister  and  richer,  the  ring- 
ing did  not  prove  as  dangerous,  and  is  yet  practiced,  though  great  care 
is  taken  that  the  same  branch  is  never  girdled  or  ringed  in  two  suc- 
cessive years.  Only  the  strongest  vines  are  able  to  resist  the  exhausting 
effects  of  the  process;  the  weaker  ones  should  never  be  forced  to 
overproduce. 

The  exhalations  of  fig-trees  and  pomegranate  bushes  are  considered 
most  beneficial  to  the  currant  grape,  and  the  former  are  found  every- 
where among  the  plantations,  especially  along  roads  and  ditches. 

Drying  and  Curmg-.-S£be  drying  and  curing  of  the  currant  grapes 
are  done  on  drying  grounds.  These  are  simply  leveled  places  covered 
with  fresh  cow  dung,  or  cow  dung  first  mixed  with  water  into  a 
paste.  When  this  paste  is  dried,  it  presents  a  smooth  surface,  firm 
but  elastic,  and  entirely  free  from  smell.  This  kind  of  drying  ground 
is  considered  the  best  kind.  Inferior  drying  grounds  are  simply  made 
of  the  cleared  soil.  The  currants  dried  on  the  latter  are  always  full  of 
sand  and  dirt  to  an  alarming  extent,  and  bring  an  inferior  price  in 
the  market.  The  bunches  are  turned  several  times  until  dry,  when 
they  are  raked  over  with  a  wooden  rake  or  broom,  by  which  process 
the  stalks  are  separated  from  the  berries.  The  berries  are  now 
gathered,  and  the  better  qualities  are  winnowed  in  machines  like 
our  fanning-mills.  The  next  step  is  to  sweat  the  currants,  which  is 
simply  done  by  piling  them  in  air-tight  rooms.  The  currants  are  here 
put  in  large  piles,  which  by  sweating  and  pressure  become  so  hard 


28  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

and  solid  that,  when  removing  the  berries,  a  sharp  spade  is  used  for 
digging.  The  vintage  begins  in  July  in  Zante;  Cephalonia  grapes 
ripen  almost  one  week  earlier. 

Cost  of  Currant  Vineyards  in  Greece. — In  the  Grecian  Islands  and 
Morea,  the  best  vineyard  land  varies  between  $80  and  $125  per  acre  for 
unimproved  land.  To  prepare  the  land  for  the  vineyard  and  irrigation, 
it  will  cost,  in  extreme  cases,  from  $20  to  $50  more.  The  first  year's 
cultivation  and  care  of  the  young  vines  is,  of  course,  different  accord- 
ing to  locality,  but  the  average  is  seldom  less  than  $50  per  acre.  The 
value  of  already  planted  property  or  a  vineyard  in  good  bearing  is 
seldom  less  than  $320  per  acre,  and  often  as  high  as  $650  per  acre, — 
four  stremmas.  Strange  enough,  in  calculating  the  cost  of  a  vineyard 
in  Greece,  no  one  ever  takes  into  consideration  the  price  of  the  planta- 
tion or  the  capital  invested.  The  interest  on  the  same  is  never  consid- 
ered by  the  natives.  In  this  respect  they  resemble  our  own  farmers, 
who,  in  calculating  the  expenses  of  their  farms,  never  take  into  con- 
sideration the  labor  of  themselves  and  family.  Of  course,  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  obtain  exact  calculations  of  profit.  The  following  will 
serve  as  a  sample:  An  acre  of  vineyard  planted  to  currants  yields 
3,200  pounds.  The  price  obtained  for  the  same  is  two  cents  per 
pound,  or  $64.  The  labor  for  the  year  on  one  acre  is  estimated  at  $45, 
leaving  a  yearly  profit  of  $19  per  acre.  In  reality,  however,  this  is 
not  a  true  statement,  as  it  does  not  consider  the  interest  on  the  capital. 
If  the  same  should  be  added,  it  is  evident  that  there  would  be  but  little 
or  no  profit  in  the  growing  of  currants.  The  industry  simply  enables 
the  peasant  who  pursues. the  work  to  live  and  support  his  family,  and 
possibly  to  pay  his  taxes.  Only  the  very  best  land  and  the  best  vine- 
yards can  pay  enough  to  enable  its  owner  to  save  up  a  capital,  gener- 
ally a  difficult  thing  in  Greece  for  any  one  but  a  merchant  or  gov- 
ernment officer. 

As  a  rule,  the  cost  of  producing  one  hundred  pounds  of  currant 
raisins  is  not  less  than  $1.35.  Whatever  the  merchant  pays  above  this 
to  the  producer  will  be  for  the  benefit  of  the  producer.  But,  as  a  rule, 
this  way  of  buying  direct  is  not  in  use.  The  merchant  sells  on  com- 
mission, and  what  this  means  we  who  have  had  experience  in  the 
raisin  business  in  this  State  all  know.  We  will  see  how  a  calculation 
of  an  acre  of  currants  will  look,  when  all  the  expenses  are  taken  into 
consideration: 
One  acre  of  currants  equals  3,200  pounds  at  three  cents 

per  pound $96.00 

Expense  on  3,200  pounds  at  $1.35 $43  oo 

Packing  and  hauling 7.50 

Freight,  insurance,  duty,  etc v 22.50 

Interest  on  capital  invested ..''.* 15.00 

Merchant  charges  say 8.00 

$96.00 

In  this  instance  the  poor  currant  raiser  has  had  no  other  profit  than 
the  five  per  cent  interest  on  his  capital  invested;  he  has,  in  othe~r 
words,  come  out  even.  But  figures,  sometimes,  are  apt  to  lie.  The 
profit,  no  doubt,  is  small  to  the  producer,  but  it  must  still  be  some. 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  29 

He  makes,  no  doubt,  fair  wages  according  to  his  own  ideas,  and  as  he 
has  paid  for  his  capital  in  labor,  and  probably  never  handled  a  dollar 
of  the  same,  he  considers  himself  comparatively  well-to-do.  But,  as 
currant  vineyards  sometimes  sell,  and  sell  high,  too,  it  is  simply  unac- 
countable that  the  interest  is  never  taken  into  consideration  in  estimat- 
ing the  profits  of  the  grower.  The  currant  industry  is,  I  believe,  the 
only  one  in  the  world  in  which  this  is  not  done.  I  have  thus  exten- 
sively dwelt  upon  the  profits  and  expenses  of  this  industry  in  its 
native  country,  on  account  of  the  many  attempts  to  introduce  the 
growing  of  currants  here  in  California.  The  question  with  us  is,  will 
it  pay.  Our  advantage  is  that  our  currants  would  be  protected;  but 
still  it  is  very  doubtful  if  currant  plantations  would  ever  pay  enough  to 
warrant  us  to  engage  in  the  same.  The  price  paid  at  present  is  too 
low,  and,  as  long  as  Muscatels  bring  a  higher  price,  it  will  probably  be 
the  favorite  grape  with  us. 

Consumption  and  Production. — The  importation  of  currants  to  Eng- 
land was,  at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  about  3,600  tons.  In  1832 
this  had  risen  to  7,135  tons,  in  1864  to  37,151  tons,  and  in  1876  to 
48,595  tons.  As  regards  the  production  of  currants  in  Greece,  the 
average  yield  from  1816  to  1826  was,  for  Cephalonia,  2,000  tons, 
for  Zante  3,000  tons,  and  for  Morea  4,000  tons  or  over.  From 
that  time  on  the  exportations  from  Zante  and  Cephalonia  increased, 
while  the  export  of  Morea  decreased.  Thus,  in  1833,  Zante  and 
Cephalonia  exported  about  11,000  tons,  and  Morea  only  2,000  tons, 
this  principally  on  account  of  the  Greek  revolution.  In  1840,  the 
three  places  exported  14,206  tons,  which  again  in  1849  had  risen  to 
30,850  tons,  in  1858  to  32,950  tons,  in  1868  to  55,283  tons,  and  in  1876 
to  86, 104  tons.  This  large  crop  was  exported  as  follows:  England, 
60,263  tons;  Germany,  1,475  tons;  Holland,  4,847  tons;  Trieste,  3,241 
tons;  America,  11,225  tons;  Belgium,  4,105  tons;  Various,  948  tons. 
Since  that  time  the  production  of  currants  has  increased  greatly 
in  Greece,  especially  on  the  mainland,  and  now  it  reaches  yearly  from 
126,000  to  130,000  tons.  During  the  last  four  years  the  production 
has  been  about  as  follows  (according,  to  L.  C.  Crowe  in  the  California 
Fruit-grower):  1884,  130,000  tons  ;"  1885,  114,000  tons  ;  1886,126,000 
tons  ;  1887,  127,000  tons. 

In  1886  this  crop  was  produced  in  the  following  places  : 

Gulf  of  Corinth 7,000  tons. 

Vostizza 10,000 

Patras 12,000 

Gastuni,  Pergos,  Olympia 38,000 

Kyparissia,  Figliatra,  Gargaliano 17,000 

Ligudista,  Pylos,  Modone  and  Corone 9,000 

Kalamata  and  Nisi 14,000 

Missolonghi,  ^Btolico,  Lepanto 2,500 

Nauplia  and  Argos 600    ' ' 

Total  for  Morea  and  Acarnania 1 10,000    " 

Ionian  Islands,  Cephalonia,  Ithaca,  Santa  Maura.      10,500 
Zante 6,000    " 

Total..  126,000    " 


30  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

Of  this  crop  the  United  States  imported  as  follows  (the  freight  to 
New  York  in  1886  ranging  from  iys.  6d.  to  203.  per  ton,  gross):  1883, 
13,895  tons;  1884,  I0>175  tons  J  l885,  8,283  tons;  1886,  8,755  tons. 

In  the  United  States,  the  consumption  of  currants  has  increased 
largely  during  the  last  twenty-five  years.  In  1874,  we  imported 
14,141,797  pounds  of  currants;  but  in  1888  the  importations  had 
increased  to  30,636,424  pounds,  valued  at  $1,176,532.  The  duty  is  now 
one  cent  per  pound  in  this  country;  while  in  England  it  is  seven  shil- 
lings per  hundred  pounds. 

The  currants  exported  to  the  United  States  are  known  as  Provincial 
currants  or  American  staple,  and  are  not  considered  the  best  quality  ; 
they  are  grown  principally  in  Trifylla  and  Pylia  and  are  shipped  from 
the  ports  Zante  and  Patras.  Some  come  also  from  Vostizza,  Catacolo, 
Kalamata,  Nauplia  and  Cephalonia.  The  Kalamata  currants  are  in- 
ferior and  are  mostly  exported  to  France  for  brandy  and  wine  making. 
The  choicest  currants  are  those  grown  in  Zante,  and  there  known  as 
"  Cascalina."  They  go  mostly  to  England,  while  the  other  products 
of  the  islands  go  to  Belgium,  Holland  and  Northern  Germany. 

Currants  in  California. — California  has  so  far  not  cut  any  figure  as 
a  currant-producing  country,  not  because  the  currants  will  not  grow 
here,  but  because  no  one  has  ever  seriously  engaged  in  their  culture. 
Currant"  grapevines  are  scattered  all  over  the  State;  but,  to  our  knowl- 
edge, no  plantations  are  larger  than  an  acre  or  two.  In  Fresno,  a  few 
acres  of  currants  are  found  in  the  Mirabelle  Vineyard  east  of  town, 
and  a  few  hundred  vines  are  also  grown  on  the  Raisina  Vineyard  in  the 
Central  Colony.  Outside  of  these  we  know  of  only  scattered  vines. 
These  currants  are  all  of  the  white  variety,  which  is  considered  inferior 
to  the  black  currant  of  Zante  and  the  mainland  of  Greece.  When 
dried,  they  produce  a  most  beautiful  semi-transparent  raisin,  entirely 
seedless,  with  a  very  thin  skin  and  of  very  fine  flavor.  The  yield, 
however,  has  from  some  cause  or  other  not  been  equal  to  expectations, 
and,  the  price  of  currants  being  lower  than  that  of  other  raisins,  the 
former  has  not  been  considered  as  profitable  as  the  Muscatels.  Until 
we  import  the  true  black  currant  from  Zante  and  find  the  most 
suitable  locality  to  grow  them,  it  is  not  likely  that  currant  culture  will 
make  much  headway  in  this  country.  We  have,  however,  no  doubt 
that,  with  our  various  climates,  many  places  will  be  found  in  California 
where  the  currant  will  yield  enough  to  pay,  provided  our  raisinmen 
will  be  satisfied  with  a  reasonable  profit. 

SMYRNA  RAISINS. 

Districts  in  Smyrna :  Their  Extent  and  Climate.  —  The  port  of 
Smyrna,  so  famous  for  its  dried  figs,  is  ^hardly  less  renowned  for  the 
immense  quantity  of  raisins  and  dried  grapes  of  different  kinds  which 
are  shipped  from  there  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  While  Smyrna  figs 
are  better  known  than  Smyrna  raisins,  the  latter  are  by  far  the  most 
important  industry.  Thus  from  _i88o  to  1881  the  raisin  crop  exported 
from  Smyrna  was  valued  at  $4,602,388;  while  the  value  of  the  fig  crop 
did  not  exceed  $1,646,998,  or  about  three  million  dollars  less  than  the 
former.  Since  that  time  the  raisin  trade  has  yet  further  increased, 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  31 

until  it  to-day  reaches  one  hundred  thousand  tons  of  raisins  and  dried 
grapes.  Unlike  the  figs,  which  are  only  grown  in  the  interior  valleys 
some  thirty  to  sixty  miles  from  Smyrna,  the  grapes  which  produce 
the  raisins  are  grown  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  town.  The 
large  territory  which  exports  the  Smyrna  raisins  can,  however,  be 
divided  into  several  sub-districts,  each  one  having  some  characteristics 
of  its  own,  both  as  regards  quality  of  raisins,  time  of  ripening,  etc. 
These  districts  are:  Chesme,  Vourla,  Yerly  and  Carabourna.  The 
principal  variety  of  grape  grown  in  these  districts  is  the  Sultana,  a 
seedless  grape  with  enormous  bunches.  Many  other  varieties"  are 
found  there  also,  such  as  " black"  and  "red,"  the  latter  said  to  be 
identical  with  the  Spanish  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  which  I  doubt. 

The  Chesme  district  is  situated  to  the  west  on  the  peninsula  near 
Smyrna,  its  principal  port  for  exportation  of  the  crop  being  the  town 
of  Chesme.  The  Chesme  raisins  are  considered  inferior  to  those  of 
the  other  districts.  Three-fourths  of  the  raisins  from  the  district  are 
exported  to  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Stettin,  Amsterdam,  and  to  Trieste 
in  Austria.  The  latter  town  is  the  main  distributing  point  for  most 
of  the  raisins  grown  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  raisin  districts. 

The  Carabourna  or  Karabournou  district  produces  the  best  raisins, — 
both  of  the  Sultanas,  the  red  and  the  black.  The  district  is  situated 
to  the  east  and  north  on  the  same  peninsula  as  Chesme.  The  district 
is  rough  and  hilly,  but  the  whole  is  cultivated  to  vines.  The  Cara- 
bourna "  ElemeV'  go  about  one-half  to  Russia,  the  balance  to  England 
and  Trieste. 

The  Vourla  district  consists  of  a  fertile  plain  lying  on  the  isthmus 
between  the  Bay  of  Smyrna  and  Scala  Nova  or  Ephesus.  The  export 
place  is  the  port  of  Vourla,  one  of  the  finest  harbors  on  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  often  the  meeting  place  for  fleets  of  the  Western 
nations  of  Europe  during  their  remonstrances  in  Turkish  waters. 

The  Yerly  district  immediately  surrounds  the  town  of  Smyrna,  and 
extends  from  Nymphio  in  the  east  to  Tourbali  in  the  south  and  Sivri- 
Hissar  in  the  west,  thus  bordering  the  Vourla  district.  Yerly  Sultanas 
are  the  earliest  in  the  market,  sometimes  being  ready  in  the  first  weeks 
of  August. 

Small  quantities  of  raisins  also  come  from  Tyra,  Bairdir,  Aidin  and 
other  places  in  the  fig  districts  in  the  interior.  The  Island  of  Samos, 
off  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  produces  raisins  of  several  kinds,  such 
as  Sultanas,  black  raisins,  principally  for  distilling  abroad,  and  Mus- 
catel raisins,  the  latter  reaching  three  thousand  tons  in  favorable 
seasons.  The  Island  of  Cos  or  Stan-chio  is  also  famous  for  its  Sul- 
tana raisins,  said  to  be  the  finest  of  any  produced  in  Turkey. 

The  climate  of  the  Smyrna  raisin  districts  is  very  mild,  allowing 
farm  labor  to  be  performed  the  year  round.  The  temperature  seldom 
falls  below  the  freezing  point,  while  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the 
middle  of  September  it  ranges  from  70  to  90  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the 
shade.  During  the  summer,  the  Imbat  or  Seabreeze  tempers  the 
heat  and  makes  the  climate  pleasant  to  live  in.  The  grapes  begin  to 
ripen  about  July  first,  the  Sultana  grapes  being  the  earliest.  The 
rainfall  is  abundant  during  the  rainy  months  of  the  year,  September 


32 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 


to  April,  and  averages  twenty-five  inches,  varying  from  fifteen  inches 
in  dry  seasons  to  thirty-three  inches  in  very  wet  years.  The  following 
table  of  the  rainfall  is  taken  from  the  consular  reports  published  in 
1884: 

Table  showing  the  monthly  rainfallin  the  city  of  Smyrna,  in  inches  and  hundredth^ 

of  inches,  during  the  nineteen  years  ending  with  1882. 

Compiled  by  W.  E.  STEVENS,  Consul  at  Smyrna. 


YEAR. 

January. 

February. 

March. 

1 

1 

i 

•3 

August. 

September.  | 

i 

November. 

December. 

Yearly  total. 

1864... 

-I.CQ 

i 

.58 

3-75 

1-59 

.80 

2.40 

•5° 

3-3° 

3.51 

6.80 

1.49 

29.84 

1865 

7-O7 

o^ 

4-43 

1.42 

.23 

.•14 

.10 

1.27 

2.67 

.10 

&6Q 

j866            

?  78 

i  .7Q 

.20 

.gc 

63 

.06 

.08 

^.84 

3  91 

T5    T? 

1867  

2.63 

T    T6 

1-37 

* 

jy 

1-54 

5.76 

23.72 

•  32 

II  .24 

.83 

.67 

.27 

.07 

•  S2 

I.  TO 

4.02 

g  . 

3O.2O 

1869  
1870  
1871  
1872  

3-21 

5-79 

II.  IO 

3-17 

,-Jt 

1.19 
1.46 

12.07 
2.29 
1.29 
•50 
2.08 

2.24 
.66 
4.18 
•5° 

.19 

.07 
1.09 

3-09 
2.38 

•59 

•39 
.60 
.16 

.04 

•47 

.08 

3-95 

2  '.82 

I.8I 

j.li 

2.50 

3-46 
.18 
7.04 
3-65 
2.92 

.80 
6.73 
4-58 
4.76 
2.62 

24.77 
28.98 
28.77 
24.23 
21  .21 

1874 

S.82 

I  .Q2 

.40 

.15 

.02 

.30 

10.31 

8.99 

28.O5 

Q.4.8 

e    78 

i  .36 

.  je 

2.87 

4.86 

^•O4 

1876  

1877           

^'.08 

1-45 

2.Q2 

3-12 
i.  ii 

.42 

3-47 

1.76 
.04 

•54 
.  ii 

.36 

.is 
.61 

•94 
4.00 

5-75 

6.OQ 

8.48 
5.98 

27.95 

33.51 

1878!                   . 

2.10 

3.OO 

4-97 

.13 

.40 

T77 

•44 

8.50 

27.95 

A    28 

2.69 

2  1J& 

1.38 

2.71 

4.06 

1.81 

21.26 

iS8o.       ......... 

]  6T 

•3O 

2.87 

i  60 

2.69 

.18 

.04 

60 

4.00 

2.49 

17.88 

1881  
1882  

6.15 
1.27 

3-92 
I.I7 

1.74 

1.04 

.80 
3-45 

1-45 
.66 

.09 

.10 





5-47 
i.  02 

7'3 

4.72 
4-56 

24.50 
21.25 

I  75 

.22 

.11 

84 

1.88 

4  47 

2S  7^ 

As  will  be _seenj.most  of  the  vineyards  are  situated  within  the  reach 
of  the  seaoreezes,  some  even  being  almost  on  the  edge  of  the  waters  of 
the  Mediterranean.  The  best  vineyards  are  those  which  are  situated 
inland  from  seven  to  twenty  miles  from  the  coast.  The  vineyard  dis- 
tricts are  all  rough  and  hilly,  except  those  in  the  Vourla  district, 
which  are  on  comparatively  level  ground.  While  some  vineyards 
stretch  from  the  seashore,  others  reach  an  elevation  of  four  hundred 
feet  or  over.  The  soil  varies  with  the  districts.  The  best  soil  for  the 
Sultanas  is  considered  to  be  hippurite  limestone  soil,  common  in  some 
districts.  This  white,  marly  soil  is  in  places  mixed  with  a  yellow- 
ocher-colored  loam,  with  sand  and  gravel.  The  abundance  of  the 
rainfall  makes  irrigation  unnecessary,  and  no  vines  are  grown  with 
irrigation. 

Care  of  the  Vines. — While  no  general  irrigation  is  needed,  the  young 
vines  are  watered  by  hand  in  years  of  exceptionally  light  rainfall. 
The  vines  are  generally  grown  from  -  rooted  cuttings,  which  have 
been  planted  in  trenches  the  year  before.  '  Previous  to  the  planting  of 
a  vineyard,  the  soil  is  dug  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  feet.  If 
this  can  be  done  the  year  before  planting,  it  is  considered  better,  as 
resulting  in  a  quicker  and  stronger  growth  of  the  vines. 

In  older  vineyards,  the  vines  are  set  in  rows  six  or  seven  feet  apart, 
and  with  three  or  four  feet  between  the  rows.  The  vines  are  not  grown  to 
standards,  but  from  branching  stalks  from  one  to  two  and  a  half  feet 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  33 

high,  with  an  average  height  of  one  and  a  half  feet  from  the  ground. 
No  stakes  are  used,  and  only  occasionally  is  there  seen  a  prop  under 
heavier  loaded  branches. 

The  pruning  is  done  in  the  winter,  when  the  vines  are  comparatively 
dormant.  The  superfluous  branches  are  then  cut  away,  and  the 
remaining  ones  are  cut  to  two  or  three  eyes  each.  The  cultivation  was, 
until  lately,  performed  in  the  simplest  way  with  pick  and  spade.  The 
first  digging  is  done,  in  January,  at  which  time  also  the  ground  is 
manured.  This  is  done  by  digging  pits  and  trenches  in  the  vineyard, 
which  are  filled  with  goat  and  camel  dung.  These  trenches  remain 
open  for  a  month  or  more,  and  are  after  that  time  filled  in.  The 
first  digging  in  the  soil  is  done  in  November,  the  second  one  in  January 
and  February,  when,  in  leveling  the  ground,  it  is  at  the  same  time  dug 
over  again  one  foot  or  more.  The  third  or  last  digging  is  per- 
formed in  March,  when  simply  the  weeds  are  spaded  under.  Of  late 
years,  vineyardists  from  other  Mediterranean  districts  have  settled  in 
Smyrna  and  brought  with  them  better  methods.  Greek  farmers  have 
especially  done  much  to  improve  the  old  ways  of  cultivation  used  by 
the  slovenly  or  ignorant  natives. 

In  May,  the  young  shoots  are  pinched  back  after  the  grapes  have  set 
well  and  began  to  develop.  The  pinching  of  the  ends  produces  a 
second  crop,  which,  besides  being  later,  also  consists  of  smaller 
grapes  than  the  first.  All  sterile  and  inferior  shoots  are  then  cut  off, 
and  this  is  repeated  during  the  summer  in  order  that  the  vines  may  not 
be  weakened  unnecessarily.  The  vines  come  into  bearing  in  the  third 
year,  begin  to  pay  expenses  in  the  fourth  year,  and  leave  a  profit  in 
the  fifth  year  after  being  set  out.  In  the  seventh  and  eighth  years  the 
vines  are  considered  in  full  bearing. 

The  Sultana  grapes  begin  to  ripen  in  July.  The  vintage  begins 
towards  the  end  of  July,  and  lasts  until  the  middle  of  August. 
Other  varieties  of  grapes  are  later,  lasting  from  the  middle  of  August 
to  the  end  of  September,  their  vintage  seldom  lasting  as  late  as  the  first 
week  of  October.  The  first  raisins  are  ready  about  August  ist,  and 
the  last  Sultanas  are  all  in  by  Septejuber  ist,  the  other  varieties  of 
raisins  coming  in  later. 

Dipping,  Drying  and  Curing. —  The  curing  of  the  grapes  into 
raisins  requires  great  care,  and  nowhere  is  any  more  skill  shown  than 
in  Smyrna.  Its  raisins  are  the  most  beautiful  of  any,  their  splendid 
appearance  and  transparency  being  due  to  the  process  employed.  The 
drying  is  done  on  drying-floors,  which  sometimes  consist  of  the  bare 
ground  only,  at  other  times  of  elevated  beds  of  earth  a  foot  or  so 
high.  When  the  soil  is  not  naturally  hard  and  suitable  for  drying- 
floors,  it  is  first  prepared  by  cutting  off  the  weeds,  and  is  then 
watered  and  packed  until  a  smooth  and  hard  surface  is  produced. 
This  hard  bed  is  sometimes  left  bare,  and  at  other  times  covered  with 
matting.  In  other  places  the  grapes  are  dried  on  canvas,  or  on 
trays  made  of  the  Italian  reed,  or  of  grasses.  These  trays  are  raised 
on  props  three  or  four  inches  above  the  ground,  and  are  loose  so  that 
they  may  be  put  on  top  of  each  other  to  exclude  the  sun,  rain  or  fog, 
according  to  locality  and  season.  Great  stress  is  laid  upon  having  the 


34  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

grapes  fully  ripe.  Before  thus  exposed,  the  grapes  are  dipped  in  a 
solution  of  lye  and  oil,  and  upon  the  skill  in  this  performance  depends 
the  beauty  and  value  of  the  raisins.  A  potash  is  made  from  the 
ashes  of  the  vine  cuttings  of  the  previous  year.  About  one  gallon  of 
this  potash  solution  is  mixed  with  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  gallons 
of  water,  making  a  weak  lye  solution  of  a  strength  of  from  five  to  six 
degrees  in  Beaume's  ' '  Lyeometer. "  A  similar  strength  would  be 
obtained  by  dissolving  one  pound  of  pearl  ash  in  ten  gallons  of 
water.  Tubs  of  wood  or  zinc  of  the  size  of  two  and  a  half  by  two 
feet  are  used  for  dipping.  To  every  such  tub  of  twenty-five  gallons  is 
added  from  one-fourth  to  two  gallons  of  olive  oil.  The  latter  quantity 
is  used  in  the  Karabournou  district,  where  the  finest  raisins  are  made. 
When  of  proper  strength  as  regards  both  oil  and  lye,  the  wash  runs 
off  from  the  bunches  smoothly;  when,  again,  the  wash  runs  off  in 
small  globules,  there  is  a  deficiency  of  either  oil  or  potash.  The 
grapes  are  loaded  in  small  baskets  of  twenty-five  pounds  each,  and 
immersed  in  the  wash  for  half  a  minute.  They  are  then  taken  out  and 
spread  either  on  the  ground  or  on  trays  or  canvas.  In  the  interior, 
where  the  sun  is  hot,  the  reed  mats  are  placed  on  top  of  each  other  to 
exclude  the  sun.  The  same  is  also  done  if  rain  or  fog  is  feared.  After 
a  few  days  of  exposure,  and  when  partially  dried,  the  raisins  are  sprin- 
kled every  morning  with  the  same  lye  solution,  but  without  oil.  The 
Sultanas  are  dried  in  from  five  to  eight  days.  This  dipping  process  is 
also  used  for  the  larger  Muscatels,  but  the  lye  is  made  stronger,  prob- 
ably reaching  the  proportion  of  about  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  pearl 
ash  to  five  gallons  of  water.  The  carefully  dipped  raisins  have  a  pure 
greenish  amber  color,  and  a  peculiar  flavor.  They  are  worth  twenty 
per  cent  more  than  undipped  fruit. 

The  Sultanas  of  the  better  grades  are  now  sold  off-stalk  or  loose.  The 
finest  brands  are  the  Chesme  elem£,  or  Chesme  select.  Elem£  means 
choice  or  select,  and  is  used  both  for  raisins  and  figs.  The  yield  of  an 
acre  of  Sultana  vines  varies  in  different  vineyards,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  soil.  A  good  yield  is  considered  about  seven  tons  of 
fresh  grapes,  or  about  two  and  a  third  tons  of  raisins. 

The  price  of  the  Smyrna  Sultanas  fluctuates  considerably;  but  it 
may  be  said  that  the  best  grades  are  always  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
per  cent  higher  than  the  dipped  raisins  of  Valencia.  Thus,  in  1843, 
dipped  Valencias  brought  six  and  a  quarter  cents,  while  the 
Smyrna  Sultanas  brought  ten  cents.  In  1844,  the  Valencias  were 
quoted  at  ten  cents,  while  the  Sultanas  brought  twenty  cents  per 
pound.  Of  late  years,  the  Smyrna  Sultanas  have  fluctuated  between 
four  and  a  half  and  twelve  and  a  half  cents  per  pound. 

Production  and  Export. — The  production  of  Smyrna  raisins  and 
dried  grapes  has  enormously  increased  during  the  last  few  years.  In 
1844,  the  average  crop  was  only  from  six  to  eight  thousand  tons.  In 
1868,  this  had  increased  to  nineteen  thousand  tons,  and  in  1871  we  find 
the  export  from  Smyrna  to  be  forty-eight  thousand  tons.  In  1881, 
this  had  grown  to  seventy -five  thousand  tons  (according  to  the  consu- 
lar report  of  Consul-General  G.  H.  Heap  of  Constantinople).  Of  the 
districts  already  mentioned,  Chesme  and  Vourla  produce  about  three 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  35 

times  as  much  as  Yerly  and  Carabourna.  A  somewhat  varied  estimate 
of  the  Smyrna  raisin  crop  is  given  by  Consul  W.  E.  Stevens  of 
Smyrna,  in  his  report  dated  February  28,  1884.  According  to  him,  the 
raisin  crop  of  Smyrna  should  amount  to  one  million,  nine  hundred 
thousand  hundred  weight  or  ninety-five  thousand  tons.  These  two 
consular  estimates  would  give  Smyrna  as  follows:  1871,  forty-eight 
thousand  tons;  1872,  thirty-one  thousand  tons;  1879,  seventy-five 
thousand  tons;  1881,  forty-nine  thousand  tons;  1884,  ninety-five  thou- 
sand tons.  This,  of  course,  includes  all  kinds  of  raisins.  As  regards  the 
Sultana  raisins,  the  reports  of  the  two  consuls  also  differ.  By  Consul 
Stevens,  it  is  estimated  to  be  thirty-two  thousand,  five  hundred  tons, 
or  sixty-five  million  pounds;  while  Consul  Heap  puts  the  figures  at  only 
nineteen  million,  four  hundred  thousand  pounds, or  only  nine  thousand, 
seven  hundred  tons.  We  have  no  means  to  verify  the  statements,  but 
are  inclined  to  think  the  higher  figure  the  more  correct.  If  it  is  true 
that  the  raisin  yield  of  Smyrna  to-day  reaches  one  hundred  thousand 
tons,  it  would  be  absurd  to  think  that  only  ten  per  cent  should  be 
Sultanas,  which  is  the  principal  raisin  grape  of  the  district.  It  is 
more  probable  that  at  least  one-third  of  the  whole  crop  consists  of  Sul- 
tanas. About  eighty  per  cent  of  all  the  Sultana  raisins  go  to  England, 
ten  per  cent  are  consumed  by  Eastern  Europe  and  Russia,  a  small  part 
only  going  to  the  United  States. 

Cost  of  Vineyards  in  Smyrna. — The  cost  of  vineyards  in  the  Smyrna 
district  varies  just  as  it  does  elsewhere.  Bearing  vineyards  change 
hands  at  from  three  hundred  to  four  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  acre. 
The  j-earlylabor  on  an  acre  of  vines,  including  pruning,  cultivation  and 
drying,  amounts  to  fifty  dollars  an  acre  or  more.  The  average  yield 
per  acre  averages  from  about  eighty-five  to  ninety  dollars,  leaving  a 
profit  of  from  thirty  to  forty  dollars,  equal  to  from  about  eight  to  ten 
per  cent  on  the  capital  invested.  I  believe,  however,  that  these  figures 
may  be  modified,  and  that  the  profit  on  an  acre  of  average  vineyard 
often  reaches  from  fifty  to  sixty  dollars.  The  fact  that  an  acre  of  vine- 
yard sells  for  four  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  indicates  that  it  must  not 
only  give  a  fair  but  a  good  interest^  on  that  sum.  The  raisins  from 
one  acre  of  a  Smyrna  vineyard  'are  sold  for  $88.  The  interest 
on  the  par  value  of  an  acre  ($450)  for  one  year  at  five  per  cent  is 
$22.50.  The  other  expenses  during  the  year  amount  to  $50,  leaving,' 
as  net  profit,  $6.50.  The  above  is  a  low  estimate  copied  from  English 
statements. 

Other  Varieties  of  Raisins. — Besides  Sultanas,  Smyrna  produces  an 
enormous  quantity  of  raisins  of  other  kinds.  The  demand  for  these 
has  been  and  is  constantly  increasing,  the  most  being  shipped  to  manu- 
facturers of  wines,  distilled  liquors  of  all  kinds,  jellies,  jams,  etc. 
These  varieties  are  known  as  Large  Black  and  Large  Red.  These 
varieties  are  grown  in  all  the  Smyrna  districts,  and  in  quantity  far  exceed 
the  Sultanas.  The  following  will  give  an  idea  of  how  this  trade  has 
increased  of  late.  Red  and  Black  Smyrna  raisins  in  tons:  1868,  12,795, 
1876,  15,500;  1881,  40,000;  1883,  45,000;  1888,  60,000.  The  price 
varies  from  three  to  four  cents  per  pound  in  the  local  market.  Judging 
from  the  constantly  increased  export  of  these  kinds  of  raisins,  it  is  not 
likely  that  the  production  of  the  same  is  likely  to  soon  be  overdone. 


36  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

ITALY  AND   ITALIAN   RAISINS. 

Lipari  and  Belvidere. — Of  the  Mediterranean  countries,  Italy  pro- 
duces the  smallest  quantity  of  raisins.  We  cannot  imagine  this  to  be 
on  account  of  unsuitable  soil  and  climate,  but  more  on  account  of  the 
tardiness  of  its  people  to  take  kindly  to  new  industries  and  improve 
upon  their  older  methods.  In  former  years  the  raisins  from  Southern 
Italy  were  much  exported  to  Northern  Europe;  to-day  the  trade  is 
insignificant.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  the  raisins  from  Lipari  and 
Belvidere  were  of  considerable  repute,  but  were,  however,  considered 
inferior  to  the  Spanish  raisins.  The  Island  of  Lipari,  to-day  princi- 
pally known  on  account  of  its  volcanoes,  produces  yet  so-called  Lipari 
currants  of  larger  size  than  those  from  Morea.  They  are  of  much 
inferior  quality,  being  hard  and  dry  and  of  oblong  shape. 

Pantellaria. — The  Island  of  Pantellaria,  between  Sicily  and  Africa, 
also  produces  raisins  of  somewhat  better  quality,  which,  if  better 
packed,  would  favorably  compare  with  the  Lexias  of  Valencia  and 
Denia.  The  Pantellarias,  or  Belvideres,  as  they  are  known  in  the 
market,  are  principally  consumed  in  Northern  Italy  and  Southern 
France.  They  are  sweet  and  good  raisins,  which,  if  carefully  and 
intelligently  handled,  would  rapidly  improve  in  quality. 

Calabria. — Since  the  destruction  of  the  Calabrian  raisins  through  the 
mildew,  the  raisin  production  of  this  peninsula  has  largely  increased. 
In  1876,  it  had  reached  eight  thousand  tons,  but  must  now  probably  be 
double  that  amount.  The  Calabrian  raisins  produced  on  the  main- 
land of  Italy  are  of  good  quality,  and  are  principally  exported  to 
France. 

CHILE  AND   HUASCO   RAISINS. 

Characteristics. — The  Chile  or  Huasco  raisin  is  one  of  the  finest 
raisins  in  the  world,  and  in  the  opinion  of  the  author  superior  to  both 
Spanish  and  California  raisins.  They  excel  in  sweetness  and  aroma 
as  well  as  flavor;  their  skin  is  thin,  and  the  seeds  are  small.  The 
color  is  entirely  different  from  sun-dried  California  or  Spanish  raisins, 
being  yellowish  amber  with  a  fine  and  thin  bluish  bloom,  indicating 
that  they  have  been  dried  in  the  shade  or  in  partial  shade  without 
dipping  in  lye  or  other  solutions. 

Location. — The  number  of  acres  devoted  to  raisin  culture  in  Chile  is 
not  known.  The  grapes  for  this  purpose  are  grown  almost  exclusively 
in  the  valley  of  the  Huasco,  back  of  the  port  of  Huasco  in  the  province 
of  Atacama.  There  appear  to  be  two  distinct  valleys  of  the  same 
name,  one  situated  only  twenty  minutes'  ride  from  the  port  of  Huasco 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  other  farther  inland  about  sixty  miles  from 
the  coast.  In  the  former  place,  the  culture  of  the  raisin  grape  is  very 
limited,  the  whole  valley  and  town  only  containing  four  hundred 
people,  of  which  not  all  are  occupied  with  the  raisin  industry.  The 
interior  valley  is  more  extensive,  and  the  largest  quantity  of  the 
Huasco  raisins  come  from  this  place.  The  port  of  Huasco  is  situated 
in  latitude  twenty-seven  degrees,  thirty  minutes  south,  longitude 
seventy-one  degrees,  sixteen  minutes  west. 


1 


Muscatel  or  Gordo  Blanco  Raisin  Grape,  Second  Crop.    Two-thirds  Natural  Size 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  37 

Varieties. — The  grape  used  for  raisins  is  a  variety  of  the  Muscat, 
very  similar  to  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria.  Grapevines  transplanted 
to  California  resemble  this  variety  very  much,  but,  according  to  Pro- 
fessor Hilgard,  set  their  fruit  better,  and  do  not  suffer  so  much  from 
colure.  It  is  said  that  these  grapes  were  imported  to  Chile  long  ago 
by  the  Spanish  conquerors,  and  it  is  supposed  they  grew  the  vines 
from  seed  brought  from  Spain,  and  selected  the  best  of  the- seedlings. 
In  this  way  the  slight  difference  of  the  Huasco  grape  from  the  Muscat 
of  Alexandria  can  be  accounted  for. 

Soils. — The  soil  in  the  coast  valley  consists  of  a  reddish,  sandy  loam, 
which  changes  to  a  fine  yellow  sand,  of  great  richness.  This  sand 
covers  the  hills  almost  everywhere  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Huasco  river, 
the  nature  of  the  country  being  a  rolling  one. 

Climate. — The  climate  is  notoriously  dry,  and  rain  falls  only  very 
seldom  between  June  and  September,  is  of  short  duration  and  very 
scant.  In  the  interior  valley,  rain  is  said  to  be  seldom  known,  and 
the  climate  there  can  be  called  entirely  rainless.  Dew  is  abundant  in 
the  winter,  but  the  summers  are  warm  and  dry. 

Irrigation. — Near  the  coast  no  irrigation  is  required,  but  in  the  interior 
valley  the  grapes  are  irrigated  three  times  a  year,  first  when  the  buds 
begin  to  swell,  second  when  they  begin  to  blossom,  and  lastly  when 
the  fruit  is  wett  advanced. 

The  Vineyard. — The  vines  are  planted  six  feet  one  way  by  eight  feet 
the  other,  and  the  intermediate  space  is  often  planted  to  alfalfa,  giving 
three  crops  of  hay  each  year.  The  heads  are  kept  low,  the  vines  are 
pruned  heavily,  and  only  two  eyes  left  on  each  cane.  Sometimes 
whole  branches  are  cut  away,  especially  if  they  do  not  bear  well. 
The  vines  are  grown  both  on  hillsides  and  in  the  valleys  on  the  bottom 
lands.  Many  of  the  vineyards  are  surrounded  by  elevated  arbors  or 
trellises,  over  which  the  vines  are  trained,  to  keep  off  the  heavy  spring 
winds  which  otherwise  would  break  the  branches, — windbreaks,  in 
fact.  The  cultivation  of  the  Huasco  vines  is  of  the  most  primitive 
kind.  The  land  is  poorly  cultivated,  and  the  fact  that  alfalfa  is  grown 
between  the  rows  of  the  vines  indicates  that  the  industry  is  not  highly 
developed.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  crowding 
together  of  various  things  on  the  land  may  help  to  give  the  grapes  a 
certain  flavor  or  aroma. 

There  is  said  to  be  a  great  difference  between  the  various  Huasco 
grapes,  some  being  very  superior  to  others.  The  inferior  kinds  are 
called  simply  Muscats,  while  the  better  kinds  are  the  Huascos.  It  is 
not  known  if  these  varieties  come  from  different  kinds  of  grapes,  but 
it  is  likely  that  this  is  the  case.  Vines  of  the  best  variety  transplanted 
to  other  localities  than  the  Huasco  valley  give  invariably  indifferent 
results,  and  produce  raisins  inferior  to  the  Huasco. 

Drying  and  Curing. — The  poorer  qualities  are  simpiy  dried  on  boards 
or  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses  in  the  sun;  but  the  fine  and  most  valuable 
raisins  are  dried  in  the  shade.  When  ripe,  the  bunches  are  carefully 
picked  and  taken  to  open K  sheds  with  thatched  roofs,  and  there  hung 
up  to  dry.  The  raisins  are  turned  at  intervals,  and  when  ready  are 
packed  in  twenty-five-pound  boxes  without  any  great  care  or  skill.  The 


38  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.' 

best  Huasco  raisin  sells  at  fifty  cents  per  pound  in  the  local  market, 
and  is  decidedly  the  most  high-priced  raisin  known.  The  best  variety 
is  scarce  even  in  Chile,  and  in  Chilean  statistics  I  could  not  find  any 
quoted.  The  following  houses  in  Huasco  are  dealers  in  fruits  and 
raisins:  Juan  Quijada,  Ramon  F.  Martinez,  and  Jose  Manuel  Balma- 
ceda.  The  export  from  the  port  of  Huasco  in  1885  amounted  only  to 
$685,853.  How  large  a  portion  of  this  was  raisins  is  not  known. 

CALIFORNIA  RAISIN  DISTRICTS. 

»  • 

A  GENERAL  REVIEW. 

Early  History. — While  the  planting  of  raisin  grapes  and  the  produc- 
tion of  raisins  in  California  dates  back  some  thirty  odd  years,  the  raisin 
industry  cannot  be  said  to  be  as  yet  twenty  years  old.  Already,  in 
1851,  Col.  Agoston  Haraszthy  grew  Muscatel  vines  from  seeds  of 
Malaga  raisins.  On  the  25th  of  March,  1852,  he  imported  the  Muscat 
of  Alexandria  from  Malaga,  and  ten  years  later,  during  a  visit  to  that 
place  on  September  27,  1861,  he  selected  cuttings  of  the  Gordo  Blanco 
which  afterwards  were  grown  and  propagated  on  his  San  Diego  county 
vineyard.  The  same  year  he  imported  Sultana  vines  from  Malaga,  and 
white  and  red  Corinth  from  Crimea.  Col.  Haraszthy  was  trius  the  first 
one  to  introduce  the  raisin-vines  in  this  State.  Another  importation  of 
the  ovoid  Muscat  of  Alexandria  was  made  in  1855  by  A.  Delmas  and 
planted  at  San  Jose,  according  to  a  statement  made  by  his  son  D.  M. 
Delmas,*  the  prominent  San  Francisco  lawyer.  G.  G.  Briggs  of 
Davisville  also  imported  Muscatel  grapes  from  Malaga  in  Spain;  while 
R.  B.  Blowers  of  Woodland,  Yolo  county,  started  his  raisin  vineyard 
in  1863  from  Gordo  Blanco  cuttings  received  from  Col.  Haraszthy. 

j  In  1876,  W.  S.  Chapman,  imported  the  best  Muscatels  from  Spain  for 
his  colonists  in  the  Central  California  Colony  in  Fresno,  which  proved  in 

*  no  way  different  from  those  already  growing  there.  Who  produced  the 
first  raisins  in  California  will  probably  never  be  satisfactorily  known. 
According  to  page  88  of  the  Report  of  the  State  Agricultural  Society 

•/of  California,  1863,  cured  raisins  were  exhibited  by  Dr.  J.  Strentzel  at 
the  State  Fair  in  1863.!  The  first  successful  raisin  vineyards  in  the 
State  were  those  planted  by  G.  G.  Briggs  at  Davisville  in  Solano 
county,  and  by  R.  B.  Blowers  at  Woodland  in  Yolo  county.  Both 
these  gentlemen  grew  the  raisin  grapes  on  a  large  scale,  and  shipped 
raisins  extensively.  The  Briggs  vineyard  consisted  mainly  of  Muscats 
of  Alexandria,  while  the  Blowers  vineyard  contained  the  Gordo 
Blanco.  Both  these  vineyards  produced  raisins  as  early  as  1867;  but 
it  was  not  until  1873  th.it.  their  raisins  cut? any  conspicuous  figure  in  the 

,  market.  That  year  si  ^  thousand  boxes  were  produced  in  the  State,  the 
majority  by  far  coming  from  these  two  vineyards. 

Later  Planting. — In  1873,  in  the  fall,  the  Muscat  vines  were  first 
brought  to  the  Fresno  raisin  district,  where  twenty-five  acres  of  Muscat 
of  Alexandria  were  planted  in  the  Eisen  vineyard.  A  few  years  later, 
or  in  1876  and  1877,  T.  C.  White  planted  the  Raisina  Vineyard  in  the 
Central  California  Colony  near  Fresno  from  Gordo  Blanco  Muscatels 

*  See  also  Wickson's  "California  Fruits,"  page  357.        t  Same,  page  79. 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  39 

brought  from  R.  B.  Blowers'  vineyard  at  Woodland.     The  following 
year,  or  in  1877-78,  Miss  M.  F.  Austin  began  improving  her  Hedgerow 
Vineyard,  also  in  the  same  colony,  with  grapes  of  the  same  kind  as 
Messrs.  White  and  B'owers.     Robert  Barton   had   also  planted  some 
twenty-five  acres  of  Muscat  grapes,  but  did   not   make   raisins   until 
later.      The  year  1879  saw  the  first  planting  of  the  A.  B.  Butler  vine- 
yard, now  the   largest  vineyard  in  the  State.      J.  T.  Goodman   had 
began  improving  his  place  at  the  same  time;  While  Col.  William  For- 
syth  entered  upon  raisin-grape  growing  between  1881  and  1882,  most 
of  his  grapes,  however,  being  planted  a  year  or  two  later.      From  that  »    A 
time  the  raisin  vineyards  in  Fresno  multiplied  rapidly,  and  about  1886  V7 
and  1887  raisin  production  became  recognized  as  the  principal  industry  'V 
of  the  district. 

The  history  of  the  development  of  the  raisin  industry  in  the  other 
districts  of  the  State  runs  very  much  the  same.  Riverside  had  entered 
the  field  in  1873,  when  the  founder  of  that  colony,  Judge  John  Wesley 
North,  planted  there  the  first  raisin-vines  of  the  variety  Muscat  of 
Alexandria.  But  raisin-grape  growing  did  not  become  general  until 
1875  and  1876,  when  the  largest  vineyards  in  the  colony  were  planted. 
In  El  Cajon  valley  in  San  Diego  county,  the  first  raisin  vines  of  the 
Muscat  of  Alexandria  variety  were  planted  in  1873  by  R.  G.  Clark;  but 
the  raisin  industry  did  not  get  a  good  start  until  some  six  or  seven 
years  ago,  while  most  of  the  vineyards  were  planted  from  1884  to  1886. 
In  Orange  county,  raisin  grapes  were  planted  at  the  same  time  as  in 
Riverside  and  El  Cajon  by  MacPherson  Bros.,  near  Orange,  now  called 
MacPherson.  The  raisin  industry  developed  rapidly,  and  Robert  Mac- 
Pherson, the  largest  grower  and  packer  in  the  district,  and  at  one  time 
in  the  State,  handled  yearly  over  one  hundred  thousand  boxes,  while 
the  yearly  crop  of  the  district  rose  to  one  hundred  and  seventy  thousand 
boxes. 

In  Central  California,  the  raisin  industry  is  gradually  spreading  from 
the  original  center  around  Fresno,  the  greater  freedom  from  rain  and 
the  better  facilities  for  irrigation  being  great  inducements  for  the  set- 
tlers to  engage  in  the  growing  and  curing  of  the  raisin  grapes.  The 
San  Joaquin  valley  is  especially  adapted  to  the  production  of  raisins, 
the  Fresno  raisin  district  being  by  far  the  largest,  and  now  producing 
almost  one-half  of  the  raisin  crop  of  the  State.  In  San  Bernardino 
county  and  district,  the  raisins  are  also  grown  to  great  profit  and  with 
great  facility,  and  are  of  equal  quality  with  those  of  the  interior  of  the" 
State.  But  the  raisin  industry  is  here  gradually  giving  way  to  the 
culture  of  oranges  and  other  citrus  fruits,  and  the  increase  in  the  raisin 
acreage  has  thereforefTot  been  so  great  as  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley. 
In  El  Cajon,  irrigation  is  not  used,  and  the  raisins  produced  there  are 
very  similar  to  the  Malaga  raisins,  but  through  absence  of  irrigation 
the  crops  are  smaller  than  in  any  of  the  other  districts  in  the  State.  \ 
In  Los  Angeles  and  Orange  county  district,  the  raisin  industry  has 
suffered  immensely  from  the  ravages  of  the  vine  plague,  an  as  yet 
entirely  mysterious  disease,  and  the  output  of  raisins  there  has  dwin- 
dled down  to  almost  nothing.  But  the  farmers  of  the  district  are  ready 
to  replant  whenever  there  are  any  prospects  that  the  vines  will  do  well 
again. 


40  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

In  the  interior  of  California,  north  of  Solano  and  Yolo  counties,  large 
quantities  of  raisin  grapes  have  been  planted  during  the  last  few  years, 
both  in  the  foothill  valleys,  out  on  the  plains,  and  in  the  bottom  lands 
of  the  Sacramento,  Yuba  and  Feather  rivers,  etc.  Raisins  of  very  good 
quality  have  been  produced  in  that  part  of  the  State  for  years  in 
limited  quantities,  but  it  is  yet  a  question  to  what  extent  that  section 
can  compete  with  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  the  State.  In  Sut- 
ter  county  around  Yuba  City  the  cultivation  of  a  seedless  raisin  grape 
is  advancing  rapidly,  the  raisins  made  from  it  being  of  excellent 
quality  and  finding  a  ready  market. 

Acreage  and  Crops. — The  quantity  of  raisin-vines  planted  cannot 
be  estimated  correctly;  but  it  is  certain  that  at  least  sixty -five  thousand 
acres  of  Muscat  vines  are  now  set  out  in  the  State,  including  grapes  in 
bearing,  as  well  as  vines  lately  set  out. 

California  enjoys  a  climate  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  culture  and 
curing  of  the  raisin  grape.  The  summers  are  warm  and  rainless,  the 
winters  again  moderately  rainy.  The  interior  is  free  from  injurious 
fogs  and  heavy  dews,  while  the  most  southern  coast  is  only  visited 
by  warm  fogs,  which  are  not  greatly  harmful  to  the  grapes.  Irrigation 
is  practiced  almost  everywhere,  except  in  El  Cajon  valley,  and 
in  some  of  the  northern  districts  of  the  State,  but  even  there  it 
is  no  doubt  that  judicious  irrigation  would  be  beneficial  and  greatly 
increase  the  crop.  The  demand  for  California  raisins  has  kept  pace 
with  the  improvements  in  curing  and  packing,  and  has  steadily 
increased  from  year  to  year.  What  the  future  has  in  store  only  the 
future  can  tell,  but  it  is  almost  certain  that  first-class  raisins  will  always 
be  in  demand,  while  inferior  grades  may  from  time  to  time  bring  lower 
prices.  The  ruling  price  of  raisins  in  sweatboxes,  as  they  may  be 
had  from  those  growers  who  do  not  pack  themselves,  has  been  from  four 
to  five  cents  per  pound.  Of  late  years,  the  tendency  is  developing  to 
pay  according  to  quality,  and  from  three  to  seven  cents  was  the  ruling 
price  for  unpacked  raisins  in  sweatboxes  during  last  season  (1889). 
This  practice  will  greatly  promote  the  raisin  industry  and  encourage 
growers  to  grow  large  grapes  and  fine  bunches,  and  to  cure  their  raisins 
well.  It  will  also  benefit  the  buyers,  who  will  know  what  they  pay 
for,  and  who  will  be  able  to  furnish  better  grades,  and  more  of  the  best 
grades  than  formerly,  when  good,  bad  and  indifferent  raisins  brought 
five  cents  per  pound. 

The  raisin  crop  of  1889  did  not  exceed  one  million  boxes.  Should 
we  venture  upon  a  statement  as  to  the  distribution  of  the  same  among 
the  various  counties  or  districts  of  the  State,  the  following  figures 
would  be  found  as  near  correct  as  it  is  possible  to  get  them: 

Fresno  district 475,000  twenty-pound  boxes. 

Tulare 15,000 

Kern 4,000 

Yolo  and  Solano 120,000 

Scattering 25,000 

San  Bernardino 265,000 

Orange  and  I^os  Angeles 8,000 

SanDiego 75,ooo 

987,000 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  41 

YOIvO  AND  SOLANO. 

Location  and  Acreage. — The  district  is  situated  north  of  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay,  bordering  on  it  as  well  as  on  the  Sacramento  river,  and  is 
a  part  of  the  Sacramento  valley.  The  number  of  acres  overreaches 
seven  thousand,  and  is  increasing  yearly.  The  principal  vineyards  are 
those  of  the  late  G.  G.  Briggs  at  Davisville,  Solano  county,  with  three 
hundred  acres,  and  at  Woodland  in  Yolo  county,  four  hundred  and  sixty 
acres;  E.  Gould,  also  at  Davisville,  two  hundred  acres;  H.  M. 
Larou,  at  same  place,  about  fifty  acres;  sundry  vineyards  around 
Davisville,  fifty  acres;  around  Woodland  and  Capay  valley,  some 
four  hundred  acres; — or  in  full  bearing  more  than  two  thousand 
acres.  The  district  comprises  the  southern  part  of  Yolo  and  the 
northern  part  of  Solano  counties.  The  grape  used  for  raisins  is 
principally  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  except  the  vineyard  of  R.  B. 
Blowers,  which  is  composed  exclusively  of  Gordo  Blanco.  The 
Muscat  of  Alexandria  is  generally  preferred,  as  it  makes  a  fine  raisin 
and  bears  well. 

5027  and  Climate. — The  soil  varies  somewhat;  the  best  is  a  deep  gray, 
alluvial  bottom-land  soil;  other  soils  are  not  much  thought  of  for 
Muscatel  raisin  grapes.  The  average  depth  of  water  is  about  eighteen 
feet  from  the  surface.  It  is  not  necessary,  as  a  rule,  to  first  level  the 
land,  as  the  ground  is  very  level  naturally.  The  rainfall  averages 
thirteen  inches.  The  most  rain  falls  in  January  and  February;  the 
least  falls  in  August.  There  is  seldom  a  shower  in  the  summer,  but 
about  November  ist  rains  are  almost  always  certain  to  interfere  with 
the  drying  of  the  grapes.  Sometimes  the  rain  comes  in  October,  when 
it  causes  considerable  damage  to  the  grapes  and  partially  dried  raisins. 
There  is  very  little  dew  in  summer  time,  but  plenty  in  October  and 
also  some  in  September.  The  temperature  is  considerably  modi- 
fied by  the  nearness  of  the  bay.  It  reaches  in  the  hottest  part  of 
the  summer  one  hundred  and  fourteen  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the 
shade,  but  only  for  a  day  or  two.  The  average  highest  is  about 
ninety  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the  shade,  while  the  heat  almost  every 
day  in  July  and  August  shows  eighty-five  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the 
shade.  Thus  this  district  is  considerably  cooler  than  the  San  Joaquin 
valley  and  San  Bernardino  county,  but  warmer  than  Los  Angeles  and 
San  Diego  districts.  There  are  heavy  frosts  in  winter,  when  at  times 
even  the  thermometer  falls  to  eighteen  degrees  Fahrenheit,  although 
this  is  the  extreme  low  temperature,  six  or  seven  degrees  of  frost  being 
more  common.  There  is  spring  frost  in  April  one  year  in  every  three 
or  four,  and  the  vineyards  are  then  smoked  to  prevent  injury  to  the 
vines.  Irrigation  is  not  needed  to  produce  crops,  only  to  produce  larger 
crops,  as  it  increases  the  yield  fifty  per  cent.  Generally  two  irrigations 
a  year  are  needed,  the  first  one  in  early  summer,  the  other  later,  when 
the  berries  have  begun  to  ripen.  Water  from  ditches  is  used  and 
carried  to  the  vines  in  furrows  only,  no  flooding  being  practiced. 

The  Vineyard.  —  In  planting,  cuttings  are  used  principally,  but 
rooted  vines  are  preferred  by  some.  The  distances  most  common  are 
ten  by  ten  feet  each  way,  one  vineyard  being  set  ten  feet  by  sixteen 
feet.  The  vines  bear  the  third  year.  The  ground  is  plowed  and 


42  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

cross-plowed,  the  first  plowing  being  from  the  vines,  and  the  second 
to  the  vines.  Harrowing  and  cultivating  both  ways  are  secondary 
operations,  continued  to  the  middle  of  May,  but  seldom  later.  Hoeing 
the  vines  finishes  the  work  of  the  soil  in  the  middle  or  end  of  May. 

In  pruning,  the  crowns  are  never  raised  over  six  inches  above  the 
ground,  from  seven  to  eight  spurs  are  left  on  large  vines,  and  each  spur 

I  is  pruned  to  two  or  three  eyes  each.  Formerly  more  eyes,  say  from  four 
to  five,  were  left  on  each  cane,  but  it  was  found  that  this  was  too 
many,  hence  the  change  to  two  or  three  eyes.  Summer  pruning  is 
practiced  by  some,  but  not  by  all;  there  is  yet  a  controversy  in  regard 
to  its  usefulness.  When  practiced,  the  vines  are  cut  six  or  eight 
inches  from  the  tops,  and  this  is  done  not  later  than  June.  Sulphur- 
ing is  in  use  everywhere;  the  vines  are  sulphured  two  times,  once 
before  and  once  after  the  bloom.  Sulphured  vines  do  not  suffer  from 
mildew.  Colure,  or  the  dropping  of  the  young  berries,  is  not  com- 
mon, the  Muscat  of  Alexandria  even  setting  well.  The  leaf-hopper 
{Erythroneura  comes)  is  more  common  in  some  years  than  in  others. 
They  eat  the  leaves  and  cause  the  grapes  to  sunburn.  Grasshoppers 
have  never  caused  any  damage.  Grape  moths  are  more  or  less  com- 
mon, but  never  troublesome.  Black-knot  is  often  seen  on  neglected 
vines,  but  is  rare  in  old  vineyards  well  cared  for. 

The  Crop. — The  grapes  ripen  in  September,  generally  from  the  first 
to  the  tenth.  The  drying  and  curing  occupies  three  weeks.  The 
bunches  are  placed  on  trays  made  of  pine  two  feet  by  three.  Several 
growers  have  artificial  dryers,  which  are  needed  for  curing  the  second 
crop.  The  sweatboxes  are  large  enough  to  contain  seventy  pounds  of 
raisins,  and  are  eight  inches  deep.  In  the  Briggs  raisin  vineyard, 
the  following  brands  are  packed:  three  crown  Layer  Muscatels;  two 
crown  Layer  Muscatels;  one  and  two  crown  Loose  Muscatels;  Dehesas 
and  Seedless  Muscatels.  The  raisins  are  seldom  sold  in  sweatboxes, 
and  no  fixed  price  is  known  for  such  raisins.  Most  growers  pack  their 
own  raisins.  The  oldest  raisin  vineyard  is  that  started  by  the  late 
G.  G.  Briggs,  and  now  owned  by  his  widow.  The  most  renowned 
vineyard  was  that  owned  by  R.  B.  Blowers  of  Woodland,  which  has 

,  |  of  late  years  been  mostly  replaced  by  other  crops.     Raisin  land  can 
.  I  be  had  for  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per 

*'  acre.  This  is  vacant  land  of  the  very  best  quality.  An  average 
profit  of  fifty  dollars  per  acre  is  realized,  although  some  have  made 
more  money  out  of  their  vines.  A  yield  of  two  or  three  tons  of  grapes 
per  acre  is  common.  As  regardsprices  of  _  labor,  etc.,  the  following 
were  those  most  commolT"Iast~  season :  Man  and  te"am,  who  boards 
himself  and  animals,  three  dollars  and  twenty-five  cents  per  day,  can 
plow  one  and  a  half  acres  of  vineyard  well.  Pruning,  one  man,  one 
dollar  per  day,  can  prune  three  hundred  vines,  or  three-fourths  of 
an  acre.  Laborers  generally  board  themselves.  The  raisins  of  this 
district  were  the  first  ones  in  the  State  or  on  this  continent  to  attract 
attention,  and  they  were  the  first  which  successfully  competed  with 
Spain.  The  crop  of  1889  reached  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand 
boxes. 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  43 

NORTHERN   CALIFORNIA. 

General  Remarks. — The  Muscatel  and  Sultana  raisin  grapes  grow 
almost  everywhere  in  the  State,  and  it  is  therefore  natural  enough  that 
the  planting  of  raisin-vines  should  have  increased  considerably  of  late 
years,  even  in  localites  situated  outside  of  those  raisin  districts  men- 
tioned, which  have  already  made  a  success  of  the  raisin  industry. 
Below  will  be  found  a  few  notices  from  various  such  places  which 
aspire  to  raisin  fame,  some  of  which  have  yet  to  make  their  reputation 
in  this  line.  These  notices  are  partly  taken  from  the  San  Francisco 
Chronicle,  which  paper  went  to  the  trouble  and  expense  of  collecting 
such  statistics  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  these  statements  are  more  or  less  approximate.  As  will 
be  seen,  all  these  localities  here  mentioned  lie  in  the  interior  or  the 
Sacramento  valley  proper,  enjoying  an  inland  climate.  The  climate 
in  this  valley  is  somewhat  like  that  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  of 
which  it  is  an  extension.  Only  the  heat  in  summer  is  less,  the.  rain 
in  winter  is  more  profuse,  the  showers  in  the  spring  of  the  year  are 
later  and  those  of  the  fall  are  earlier. 

Placer  County. — At  Rocklin  J.  P.  Whitney  has  two  hundred  and  fifty 
acres  of  raisin  grapes,  and  is  the  largest  raisin-maker  in  the  county. 
There  are  not  over  three  hundred  and  fifty  acres  of  Muscats  devoted  to 
raisin-making  in  the  county,  and  the  total  output  this  year  was  about 
four  hundred  tons,  most  of  which  was  shipped  directly  East.  The 
first  carload  of  Muscat  raisins  sent  East  was  shipped  from  the 
Whitney  vineyard  about  ten  years  ago.  A  large  area  of  Muscat  and 
other  vineyards  will  be  planted  this  season,  but  none  for  raisin- 
making. 

Yuba  County. — The  raisin  industry  has  received  but  little  attention 
in  Yuba  county,  although  it  has  long  been  known  that  raisins  of 
superior  quality  can  be  produced  here.  The  area  in  raisin- vines  is 
about  three  hundred  acres,  which  will  probably  be  increased  by  sev- 
eral hundred  acres  this  season.  Less  than  a  hundred  acres  are  in 
bearing.  The  raisin  vineyards  planted  last  season  are  chiefly  at 
Colmena,  midway  between  Marysville  and  Wheatland.  The  Muscatel 
grape  is  planted  to  some  extent,  bufthe  favorite  grape  is  the  Thompson 
Seedless,  a  new  variety  of  great  promise. 

Suiter  County. — The  raisin  industry  of  Sutter  county  dates  back  to 
the  year  1876,  and  the  venture  was  first  made  by  the  late  Dr.  S.  R. 
Chandler  three  miles  south  of  this  city.  The  area  now  in  raisin  vine- 
yard is  about  six  hundred  acres,  three-fourths  of  which  are  in  bear- 
ing. The  crops  marketed  and  prices  received  are  about  as  follows: 
Three  thousand  twenty-pound  boxes  at  $1.65  per  box;  eight  hundred 
sacks  of  one  hundred  pounds  each,  at  five  cents  a  pound;  five  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  sacks  of  dried  grapes  of  one  hundred  pounds 
each,  at  three  cents  a  pound.  The  home  consumption  is  extensive, 
but  is  not  estimated.  The  county  is  well  adapted  to  raisin  growing 
and  curing,  and  received  the  second  prize  at  the  late  Oroville  State 
Citrus  Exposition.  Muscatel  and  Thompson  Seedless  are  the  favorite 
grapes.  The  soil  of  this  county  is  very  rich  and  warm,  and  no  irriga- 
tion has  been  practiced. 


44  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

Colusa  County. — In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Colusa  there  are  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  acres  in  bearing,  and  fully  one  hundred  acres 
more  will  be  set  out  the  coming  season.  The  crop  of  raisins  in  1888 
was  very  insignificant;  but  in  1889  tne  Colusa  canneries  packed  forty 
tons  in  boxes.  The  prices  ranged  from  $1.75  to  $2.25  per  box,  accord- 
ing to  quality.  These  figures  refer  only  to  the  territory  lying  within 
a  radius  of  eight  miles  of  Colusa.  Some  of  the  finest  raisin  grapes 
in  the  county  are  grown  near  College  City,  and  the  entire  output  was 
at  least  eighty  tons  of  raisins.  Many  of  the  people  around  Orland  are 
reported  as  going  into  the  business  on  a  large  scale.  The  ranchers  in 
and  near  the  foothills  are  also  producing  raisins  of  excellent  quality. 
A  single  vineyard  of  fifteen  hundred  acres  is  being  planted  in  one 
place  in  the  foothills. 

Butte  County. — While  Butte  produces  a  fair  quality  of  raisins,  her 
vineyards  are  yet  young  and  are  just  coming  into  bearing.  The  older 
vines  are  those  of  General  Bidwell,  at  Chico,  covering  about  one  hun- 
dred acres,  and  those  of  Oroville  and  Mesilla  valley,  embracing  about 
the  same  area.  A  large  number  of  young  vines  have  been  set  out 
during  the  past  two  years,  and  these  number  52,200  near  Oroville, 
77,480  at  Palermo,  67,200  at  Thermalito,  20,570  at  Wyandotte,  25,000 
at  Central  House,  50,500  at  Gridley,  and  something  over  50,000  near 
Chico.  These  have  nearly  all  been  planted  within  the  past  two  years, 
but  a  limited  number  are  three  years  old.  In  the  foothills  are  a  num- 
ber of  small  vineyards,  but  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  the  acreage 
and  product,  though  the  total  of  each  is  not  large.  Practically  the 
bearing  vines  of  Butte  number  between  300  and  400  acres.  The  one 
and  two  year  old  vineyards  embrace  about  350  acres,  so  that  a  con- 
servative estimate  for  the  total  raisin  vineyards  of  the  county,  young 
and  old,  would  be  700  acres.  The  raisins  are  all  boxed  and  sold 
directly  by  the  vineyardists,  the  local  demand  taking  nearly  the  whole 
crop.  The  area  to  be  planted  this  year  will  not  exceed  250  acres. 

Tehama  County. — The  area  planted  to  grapes  in  Tehama  county  is 
over  ten  thousand  acres.  The  greater  part  of  the  fruit  grown  is  used 
for  wine,  and  probably  one-third  for  raisins.  All  the  raisins  produced 
here  are  packed  in  boxes,  and  a  large  portion  is  used  in  home  con- 
sumption, while  the  remainder  is  shipped.  Probably  about  ten  thou- 
sand boxes  in  bulk  and  packed  will  cover  the  yield. 

Shasta  County. — The  raisin  industry  of  Shasta  county  is  only  in  its 
infancy.  There  are  147  acres  planted  to  raisin  grapes  within  a  radius 
of  fifteen  miles  from  Redding.  The  largest  acreage  of  raisin  grapes 
is  in  Happy  valley.  There  are  patches  of  grapes  all  through  the  foot- 
hills. Probably  not  over  one  thousand  boxes  of  raisins  were  shipped. 
The  planting  of  raisin  grapes  continues  every  year.  Raisins  are  made 
by  many  small  growers,  and  sold  here  at-an  average  of  six  cents  per 
pound. 

FRESNO  AND  SAN  JOAQUIN  VALLEY. 

General  Remarks. — The  San  Joaquin  valley  is  well  adapted  to 
raisins  along  its  whole  length  almost,  but  especially  in  its  central  and 
southern  parts.  The  farther  we  go  south  in  the  valley,  the  drier  is  the 
climate,  and  the  less  is  the  rainfall  in  the  autumn  of  the  year,  both 


THB    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  45 

0 

conditions  favoring  the  curing  of  the  grapes.  The  present  raisin 
center  is  around  Fresno  City,  where  over  twenty-five  thousand  acres 
are  planted  to  raisin  grapes,  principally  Muscatels;  but  from  this 
locality  the  industry  has  been  constantly  spreading,  until  at  present  the 
other  counties  in  the  valley,  viz.,  Merced,  Tulareand  Kern,  can  show  a 
good  acreage  of  young  vines.  Next  after  Fresno,  Tulare  county 
produces  the  largest  quantity  of  raisin  grapes,  and  produces  raisins 
of  the  very  highest  quality.  The  principal  raisin  vineyards  in  that  x 
county  are  situated  in  the  Mussel  Slough  district,  on  the  rich  bottom 
lands  formed  by  the  former  delta  of  Kings  river;  of  late,  the  planting 
of  raisin  grapes  has  extended  to  other  parts  of  the  county  as  well.  In 
Kern  county  few  old  raisin  vineyards  exist,  the  oldest  one  being  situa- 
ted on  the  Livermore  ranch,  being  a  part  of  the  Haggin  and  Carr  tract. 
Several  hundred  new  acres  have  been  planted  there  this  spring,  especi- 
ally in  the  Rosedale,  I^erdo  and  Virginia  Colonies,  as  well  as  on  the 
plains  near  Delano.  I  need  here  hardly  say  that  the  raisins  of  Fresno, 
Tulare,  Kern  and  Merced  counties  should  be  all  classed  together,  as  the 
climate  in  these  various  localities  is  one  and  the  same,  with  only  a  slight 
and  gradual  change  as  to  rainfall  as  we  go  south  in  the  valley.  If  there 
will,  in  the  course  of  time,  be  found  some  difference  as  regards  quality 
in  the  raisins  of  these  various  localities  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  this 
difference  will  not  be  due  to  any  great  difference  in  the  climate,  but  to 
the  variety  of  soil  on  which  the  grapes  are  grown.  The  raisins  are  only 
grown  on  the  level  lands,  situated  from  three  to  four  hundred  feet  above 
the  sea. 

Extent  and  Location. — The  Fresno  district  contains  about  thirty 
thousand  acres,  out  of  which  about  twelve  thousand  are  in  good  or  full 
bearing.  Merced  county  has  about  two  thousand  acres,  nearly  all  very 
young  vines.  Kern  county  has  probably  about  one  thousand  acres, 
also  very  young  vines,  and  some  thirty  acres  of  old  vines.  Tulare 
county  has  about  seven  thousand  acres  of  Muscats,  a  large  part  of  which 
is  in  full  or  good  bearing.  Many  vineyards,  large  and  small,  are  being 
planted  in  these  counties  this  year,  but  enough  attention  is  not  paid 
to  proper  soil  and  to  locality,  and  here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  State,  many 
of  these  vineyards  will  not  turn  out  as  the  owners  expect  they  will. 
In  Fresno  county,  the  old  vineyards  are  planted  principally  around 
Fresno  City,  while  in  late  years  other  raisin  districts  or  sub-districts  are 
growing  into  prominence  around  Malaga,  Sanger,  Selma,  Fowler  and 
Madera.  The  varieties  used  are  principally  the  Gordo  Blanco  Musca- 
tel, much  mixed  with  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria.  There  are  some  few 
acres  of  Sultanas  and  White  Corinths,  and  of  late  many  Malagas 
have  been  planted. 

Soils  and  Climate.  — There  are  several  different  varieties  of  soils  in  the 
district, — the  red  or  chocolate-colored  sandy  loam  principally  east  of 
the  railroad,  the  white,  ashy  soil  west  of  the  railroad,  and  the  very 
sandy  soil,  generally  occurring  in  elevated  ridges.  We  have  also  the 
deep,  gray -colored  bottom  land  in  the  river  bottoms  or  along  the  rivers 
and  creeks.  The  best  grades  of  the  chocolate  and  reddish  loams, 
and  of  the  river  bottom  soil,  is  considered  the  best  for  raisins.  The 
very  sandy  soil  and  the  alkali  soil  should  not  be  used  for  raisin 


, 


46  THE    RAISIN     INPUSTRY. 

purposes.     The  climate  is  warm  and  dry  during  the  summer,  while  the 
winters  are  not  very  rainy.     From  seven  to  ten  inches  of  rain  are  an 
average  in  Fresno;    south  to    Kern   the  rainfall  decreases,    five   and 
a  half  inches  being  an  average  around  Delano.      Towards  the  northern 
end  of  the  valley,  the  rainfall  increases,  and  in   Merced  county  varies 
between  ten  and  twenty  inches,  fifteen  inches  being  a  high   average. 
In  no  portion  of  the  raisin-producing  portion  of  the  valley  can  raisin 
grapes  be  grown  without  irrigation,  the  natural  rainfall  being  entirely 
insufficient.     The  lowest  temperature  is  about  eighteen  degrees  Fahren- 
heit in  Fresno,  generally  in  January,  while  the  highest  is  one  hundred 
and  eighteen  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the  shade  in  July  and  August.  The 
lowest  temperature  is  reached  once  in  from  three  to  five  years,  and  the 
highest  quoted  is  similarly   scarce.      The    high    average  in  summer 
time  is  one  hundred  and  ten  in  the  shade,  and  for  three  months  of  the 
year  the  thermometer  every  day  can  be  counted  on  to  vary  between  one 
hundred  and  one   hundred  and   ten   in   the  shade.      In   the  winter, 
twenty  degrees  Fahrenheit  is  often  reached,  and  the  end  of  December 
and  January  may  be  counted   on   as  being    cold  and  frosty.     These 
figures  all  refer  to  the  level  plain  land,  where  the  most  of  the  vineyards 
are  planted,  and  not  to   the  foothills  or  the   thermal  belt,  nor  to  the 
high  Sierra  Nevada,  where  snow  and  ice  are  common,    and   where 
glaciers  cover  many  of  the  highest  mountain  peaks.     The  most  rainfall 
occurs  from  December  to  February,    and  the  rain   continues  more  or 
less  scattering  to  April  and  May.     There  is  only  very  seldom  a  shower 
in  the  summer,  one  perhaps  in  three  years.     In  the  mountains,  the  fall 
rains  commence  about  the  middle  of  August,  on  the  plains  again  in 
October  and  November,  sometimes  even  later.      Dew  is  rare  in  summer 
time,  but  common  from  the  beginning  of  October.     Fog  is  rare,  some- 
times an   unwelcome  visitor  in  November,  but   never  known   at  any 
other  time  of  the  year.      Spring  frosts  are  almost  unknown,  and  occur 
only  once  in  from  five  to  eight  years. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  practiced  wherever  raisins  are  grown.  The 
water  is  taken  from  the  rivers, — from  Kings  river  in  the  Fresno 
district,  and  from  the  Merced,  Kaweah  and  Kern  rivers,  etc.,  in  the 
other  districts.  Before  irrigation  was  begun  in  the  Fresno  districts, 
there  were  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet  of  dry  soil  before  the  natural  water 
level  was  reached;  but  this  has  been  so  changed  through  a  few 
years  of  constant  irrigation,  that  now  in  places  the  land  is  subirrigated 
or  moist  to  the  surface,  while  in  places  even  the  soil  requires  to  be 
drained,  and  no  other  irrigation  is  now  needed  except  to  allow  the 
water  to  flow  in  the  main  or  secondary  canals,  from  which  it  seeps  and 
keeps  the  soil  filled  with  water,  the  moisture  rising  from  below.  The 
irrigation  when  practiced  is  done  by  flooding  or  by  irrigating  in  furrows. 
New  land  must  be  irrigated  until  it  becomes  subirrigated;  but,  when 
once  this  is  done,  no  separate  irrigation  becomes  necessary.  Many 
vineyards  planted  on  subirrigated  land  which  was  once  dry  land  have 
never  since  been  irrigated. 

The  Vineyard. — The  general  distance  of  the  vines  is  eight  by 
eight  or  ten  by  ten  feet,  varying  in  different  vineyards.  Of  late,  there 
have  been  some  efforts  made  to  improve  upon  these  distances,  and  to 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  47 

have  them  planted  closer  one  way  than  the  other,  say  five  by  ten  or  six 
by  twelve  feet.  The  vines  begin  to  bear  the  second  and  third  years, 
and  if  planted  on  proper  soil  should  pay  the  fourth  year  and  give 
an  income  the  fifth  year.  Some  vines  have  been  known  to  pay  the 
third  year,  there  being  much  difference  in  this  respect.  Both  cuttings 
and  rooted  vines  are  used,  rooted  vines  having  been  preferred  during 
the  last  few  years.  The  ground  is  plowed  in  various  ways  in  the 
winter  time,  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  owner.  Cross-plowing  is 
sometimes  practiced.  The  general  rule  is  to  first  plow  one  way,  and 
then  to  cross -cultivate  repeatedly  until  the  soil  is  level  and  the  weeds 
are  destroyed.  In  wet  places,  the  cultivation  is  kept  up  until  July,  but 
in  proper  places  the  working  of  the  soil  is  finished  in  the  early  part  of 
June. 

Pruning  and  Other  Operations. — The  heads  of  the  vines  are  kept 
low, — from  six  to  sixteen  inches  above  the  ground.  The  canes  are  cut 
to  two  or  three  eyes,  and  the  number  of  canes  left  vary  from  five  to 
fifteen  or  more.  The  pruning  is  done  between  December  and  February. 
Summer  pruning  is  practiced  by  some,  but  not  by  all  growers,  there 
being  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  value  of  this  opera- 
tion. Sulphuring  is  practiced  by  all  growers,  some  sulphuring  only 
once,  but  the  best  vineyards  are  sulphured  three  or  more  times. 
Oidium  or  mildew  never  appears  in  sulphured  vineyards.  Some  few 
growers  sulphur  with  great  success  against  the  colure  or  dropping  of 
the  grapes.  Leaf-hoppers  are  common,  but  do  no  great  harm.  Grass- 
hoppers and  grape  caterpillars  were  troublesome  one  or  two  seasons,  but 
have  not  reappeared  of  late.  Black-knot  is  common  in  many  places. 

The  Crop.—  The  grapes  begin  to  ripen  in  the  middle  of  August,  or 
from  the  middle  of  August  to  the  first  of  September,  and  at  the  latter 
date  the  first  boxes  of  cured  and  packed  raisins  are  generally  heralded 
through  the  press.  The  first  grapes  dry  in  from  seven  to  ten  days,  but 
the  later  grapes  require  three  weeks  or  more.  The  drying  continues 
through  September,  and  for  the  second  crop  through  October  and  even 
in  November,  or  until  the  rains  set  in.  The  grapes  are  dried  on  trays 
two  by  three  or  three  by  three  feet.  The  sweatboxes  are  generally  two 
by  three  feet  and  from  six  to  eight  inches  high.  A  large  number  of 
brands  are  packed,  such  as  Imperial  Clusters,  Dehesas,  Layers,  Loose 
and  Seedless.  The  common  price  for  raisins  in  sweatboxes  is  from  three 
and  a  half  to  six  cents,  five  and  five  and  a  half  cents  being  the  average 
for  good  layers.  Good  land  for  raisin  purposes  can  be  had  for  one  hun- 
dred dollars  per  acre,  but  nearer  the  town  of  Fresno  is  held  higher. 
Bearing  raisin  vineyards  have  changed  hands  at  as  high  as  $i,oooper 
acre.  From  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  boxes  of  raisins  are 
realized  per  acre,  and  the  profits  vary  from  sevent3^-five  to  two  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars  per  acre,  according  to  location,  soil,  management,  etc. 
From  thirty  to  fifty  dollars  per  acre  is  spent  yearly  in  many  vineyards. 
Few  dipped  raisins  are  produced.  Some  dipped  Sultanas  have  brought 
seven  cents  in  the  San  Francisco  market.  Last  season  about  four  hun- 
dred and  seventy -five  thousand  boxes  were  produced  in  the  Fresno 
district,  and  some  twenty  thousand  boxes  more  in  the  other  parts  of 
the  San  Joaquin  valley. 


48  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

SAN  BERNARDINO  COUNTY  AND  RIVERSIDE. 

Location  and  Acreage. — San  Bernardino  county,  California,  is  entirely 
an  inland  county,  sheltered  by  low  and  high  hills  from  the  ocean. 
Fogs  and  dew  are  rare,  in  places  unknown,  and  the  county  offers 
unusual  advantages  for  raisin-growing.  The  vineyards  are  widely 
distributed  through  the  county  in  different  localities  or  raisin  centers, 
all  of  which  are  greatly  similar  as  to  climatic  conditions,  except  as 
regards  altitude.  The  San  Bernardino  vineyards  are  the  highest 
elevated  above  the  sea  of  any  in  California.  Below  will  be  found  a  list 
of  the  raisin  centers  in  the  county,  with  the  number  of  acres  and  their 
altitude  above  the  sea.  It  must  be  understood  that  each  locality  has  a 
large  extension  as  regards  altitude,  and  varies  in  many  instances  several 
hundred  feet;  this  fact  being  indeed  a  characteristic  of  the  San  Bernar- 
dino county  vineyards.  The  raisin  centers  in  San  Bernardino  county 
are: 

Riverside,    1,500  acres.      Altitude  above  sea,  900  to   i,ooofeet. 

Redlands,       800      "  "  "        "  1,200    "    i, 600  feet. 

Highlands,     400      "  "  "        "  1,500  feet. 

Ontario,          500  983    "    2,350  feet. 

Cucamonga, "  "        "      900   "    1,500  feet. 

Etlwanda,      700       "  "        t£  1,200  feet. 

There  are  several  other  localities  where  raisin  vineyards  are  found  in 
smaller  quantities,  and  it  is  safe  to  estimate  the  number  of  acres  in  the 
county  at  over  five  thousand.  Nearly  all  these  vineyards  are  situated 
on  mesa  lands,  by  which  is  meant  the  lands  situated  between  the  river 
bottoms  and  the  foothills.  As  a  consequence,  the  surface  water  is  never 
near  the  top, but  generally  far  down, and  even  continued  irrigation  would 
not  be  liable  to  raise  it  much  higher,  as  the  water  will  as  rapidly  drain 
off  through  the  substrata,  which  generally  consists  of  sandy  soil  and 
gravel.  The  land  is  in  fact  well  drained,  and  differs  in  this  respect  from 
the  plains  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley.  In  Riverside,  the  surface  water 
is  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet  down,  and  only  in  one  or  two  vineyards 
situated  deep  down  in  the  arroyo  is  the  surface  water  as  shallow  as  ten 
feet.  These  latter  vineyards  are  never  irrigated.  In  Redlands  the 
surface  water  is  at  an  average  of  thirty  feet  on  the  mesa  lands.  In 
Ontario  the  surface  water  is  even  deeper,  and  found  at  from  seventy  to 
eight  hundred  feet,  and  the  shallowest  water  in  the  district  is,  according 
to  Mr.  W.  E.  Collins,  twenty-five  feet  below  the  surface.  It  is  the 
general  belief  in  the  San  Bernardino  district  that  deep  water  is  nec- 
essary for,  or  at  least  beneficial  to,  raisin  grapes,  and  that  shallow 
surface  water  is  conducive  to  all  kinds  of  diseases.  In  this  I  cannot 
agree,  as  contrary  to  my  own  experiences  and  to  the  experiences  of 
the  Spanish  growers.  , 

Climate. — As  regards  temperature,  the*re  is  some  difference  in  the 
various  districts.  A  true  comparison  between  them  and  other  districts 
is  almost  impossible,  as  the  signal  service  thermometers  are  placed  at 
unequal  heights  above  the  ground,  and  in  localities  with  very  different 
characteristics.  It  can,  however,  be  said  that  the  winter  climate  of 
the  district  is  much  milder  during  the  winter  than  that  of  the  plains  of 
the  San  Joaquin  valley,  and  very  similar  to  the  Orange  county  and 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  49 

the  San  Diego  districts.  In  Riverside  and  Redlands,  the  thermometer 
seldom  reaches  one  hundred  and  nine  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the  shade 
during  the  summer,  and  in  winter  seldom  goes  below  twenty-four 
degrees  Fahrenheit,  while  twenty-eight  or  twenty-seven  degrees  Fahren- 
heit is  no  unusual  occurrence  once  every  year,  but  is  considered  the 
extreme  of  the  season.  It  may  thus  be  seen  that  raisin  vineyards  and 
orange  orchards  may  be  and  actually  are  grown  side  by  side  in  every 
part  of  San  Bernardino  county,  and  this  is  a  distinct  characteristic 
of  the  district,  which,  however,  it  shares  with  Orange  and  San  Diego 
counties.  The  warmest  months  are  August  and  September,  and 
October  is  generally  fine  for  drying.  So  is  November,  and  only  twice 
(in  1885  and  1889)  has  there  been  any  serious  difficulty  in  drying  the 
grapes.  In  two  other  years  the  crop  has  suffered  slightly,  but  during  the 
majority  of  seasons  in  the  months  of  November  there  has  not  been  any 
rain  on  the  mesa  lands,  and  it  is  this  absence  of  fall  rains  which  makes 
it  possible  for  the  raisin-grower  to  dry  his  crop  without  any  other 
appliances  than  raisin-trays.  Dew  and  fogs  are  very  rare,  and  occur 
only  very  seldom  during  the  summer  months.  When  they  do  occur 
at  this  time,  they  are  of  but  short  duration,  and  last  perhaps  only 
from  five  to  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning.  In  the  fall  of  the  year,  in 
October  and  November,  the  desert  wind  blows  warm  and  dry,  and 
hastens  the  drying  of  the  raisins.  It  may  blow  three  or  four 
times  during  the  season,  but  has  also  been  known  to  be  entirely 
absent.  The  rain  in  the  winter  season  is  light,  in  Riverside  twelve 
inches  being  an  exceptionally  wet  season.  From  six  to  eight  inches 
are  the  usual  rainfall,  while  again  the  actual  average  for  Riverside  is 
six  and  one-fourth  inches.  In  Ontario  the  rainfall  in  1887  was  8.21 
inches,  and  in  1888  9.23  inches. 

Irrigation. — In  Riverside  grapes  cannot  be  grown  without  irrigation 
on  the  mesa  lands,  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  localities  in  the 
arroyo.  In  the  Ontario  district,  raisin  grapes  may  be  grown  without 
irrigation  in  the  center  of  the  valley,  but  on  the  mesas,  higher  on  the 
sides,  they  must  be  irrigated,  and  even  in  localities  where  they  could 
be  grown  without  artificial  irrigation  the  same  is  always  practiced 
whenever  it  can  be  obtained.  Less  water  is,  however,  needed  than 
in  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  but  more  than  would  suffice  in  El  Cajon. 
Through  the  nature  of  the  gravelly  subsoil,  the  raisin  land  cannot  fill 
up  with  water.  Seepage  is  only  possible  to  a  limited  degree;  summer 
irrigation  is  always  required.  The  vines  are  irrigated  three  times  a 
year,  in  April,  June  and  August.  The  system  of  furrows  is  used,  and 
a  ten -inch  flow  is  considered  enough  to  irrigate  one  acre  of  grapes 
during  one  day  and  night  each  time.  In  Ontario  the  raisin  grapes  are 
irrigated  every  five  weeks,  not,  however,  while  they  are  in  bloom,  as 
it  is  considered  best  to  wait  until  the  berries  are  well  set.  In  Redlands, 
one  irrigation  after  the  winter  rain  ceases  is  considered  enough,  even 
on  soil  with  thirty  feet  to  water. 

Soils. — The  soil  in  San  Bernardino  county  varies  considerably. 
In  Riverside  and  Redlands  the  best  soil  is  a  reddish  loam,  with  some 
sand  and  gravel.  But  in  Riverside  we  also  find  sandy  soil  of  lighter 
color  and  strength,  which,  however,  is  less  suited  to  grapes.  In 


50  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

Ontario  the  soil  varies  from  a  heavy  clayey  adobe  to  a  lighter  but  very 
rich  sandy  loam  of  a  grayish  color.  The  very  sandy  soil  in  some 
river  bottoms,  especially  around  Lugonia,  has,  through  experience, 
been  found  to  be  entirely  unsuited  to  the  raisin  grapes. 

The  Vineyards. — The  variety  used  for  raisins  is  nearly  entirely  the 
Muscat  of  Alexandria,  although  several  vineyardists  call  these  grapes 
incorrectly  the  Gordo  Blanco.  I  saw  nowhere  this  variety,  but  I 
suppose  some  must  have  been  imported  there.  In  planting,  cuttings 
have  been  preferred,  probably  because  they  are  the  cheapest,  and 
because  the  value  of  rooted  vines  has  not  been  properly  understood. 
The  vines  are  set,  almost  everywhere,  eight  by  eight,  only  in  a  few 
vineyards  nine  by  nine  feet.  There  is,  however,  a  growing  belief 
that  eight  by  ten  feet  or  eight  by  twelve  feet  is  better  than  the  old 
accepted  eight  by  eight  feet.  But  I  believe  that  this  tendency  to  give 
the  vines  greater  room  will,  in  course  of  time,  be  followed  by  the 
opposite  tendency  to  plant  them  closer,  at  least  one  way,  and  give 
more  room  the  other  way.  The  Muscat  of  Alexandria  begins  to  bear 
in  three  years,  and  in  four  years  will  pay  fifty  dollars  per  acre.  The 
practice  of  plowing  is,  in  Riverside,  to  first  plow  towards  the  vines  in 
the  fall,  and  then,  when  the  vegetation  has  begun  in  the  spring,  the 
soil  is  turned  back  towards  the  center  of  the  space  between  the  rows, 
or  from  the  vines.  Then  the  soil  is  cultivated  with  chisel-tooth 
cultivators,  both  crosswise  and  lengthwise,  also  similarly  after  every 
irrigation.  But  this  practice  is  not  entirely  the  same  everywhere,  and 
the  different  vineyardists  have  here  as  elsewhere  different  ideas,  even 
in  regard  to  the  most  common  farm  or  vineyard  practices.  Pruning 
was  formerly  done  much  closer  than  now,  but  it  was  found  that  by 
close  pruning  the  vines  bore  less.  To-day  from  fifteen  to  twenty  spurs 
are  left  on  the  strongest  vines,  and  on  every  spur  about  two  eyes. 
From  twenty  to  twenty-five  spurs  were  found  to  be  too  much;  with 
such  quantity  of  spurs  the  vines  produce  smaller  and  inferior  grapes. 
Some  vines  which  were  pruned  with  twenty-five  spurs  last  year  have 
this  year  been  given  nine  or  ten  spurs  only,  so  as  to  enable  them  again 
to  recover  and  grow  strong,  when  the  quantity  of  spurs  will  again  be 
increased  to  fifteen.  Summer  pruning  is  used  by  some,  but  not  by 
others.  It  does  not,  according  to  observation,  injure  the  vine,  but 
produces  always  a  second  crop,  which  is  difficult  to  cure.  Sulphuring 
the  vines  is  practiced  by  some,  but  not  by  all,  growers.  A  great  many 
cannot  see  the  use  and  value  of  sulphur.  No  one  sulphurs  for  colure 
or  the  dropping  of  the  grape,  which  is  quite  a  common  occurrence. 
The  vines,  however,  never  suffered  from  the  leaf-hopper  nor  the  grape 
caterpillars,  but  sunscald  is  not  uncommon,  nor  is  black-knot. 

The  Crop. — The  Muscat  grapes  begin* to  ripen  in  Riverside  later 
than  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  and  picking  commences  between  the 
loth  and  the  3oth  of  September.  Highlands  is  said  to  be  two  weeks 
later  than  Riverside.  The  first  crop  is  ready  to  turn  in  two  weeks, 
and  is  ready  for  the  sweatbox  in  three  weeks'  time.  For  drying,  trays 
are  used,  and  about  twenty  pounds  are  placed  on  each  tray.  These 
trays  are  all  made  of  pine  or  fir.  Redwood  has  been  found  unsuitable, 
as  imparting  both  a  color  and  a  taste  to  the  raisins  if  accidentally  wet 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  51 

by  early  showers  in  the  fall.  Size  of  trays,  two  by  three  feet,  with  a 
cleat  nailed  at  the  short  ends,  but  none  at  the  long  ends  of  the  trays. 
Sweatboxes  receive  the  raisins  when  they  leave  the  trays.  Formerly 
the  sweatboxes  were  much  larger  and  deeper  than  now,  eight  or  even 
twelve  inches  in  depth  riot  being  unknown.  Of  late  sweatboxes  are 
made  two  by  three  feet,  or  of  the  exact  size  of  the  trays,  and  not  over 
six  inches  in  depth.  A  greater  depth  makes  the  boxes  too  heavy  to 
handle,  and  also  causes  the  bunches  to  break.  The  packing  of  the 
raisins  in  Riverside  and  in  the  Southern  California  raisin  districts 
generally  is  done  by  the  method  known  as  "top  up."  That  is,  the 
first  raisins  are  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  and  successive  layers 
are  placed  on  top,  until  finally  the  top  layer  is  put  on  the  last.  The 
lever  press  for  the  compression  of  the  layers  is  a  Riverside  invention. 
A  modification  of  this  press  is  now  in  use  in  nearly  all  districts  where 
the  '  'top- up"  method  of  packing  is  practiced.  The  brands  packed 
are  as  follows:  Three  Crown  London  Layers,  Two  Crown  London 
Layers,  Three  Crown  Loose  Muscatels,  Two  Crown  Loose  Muscatels, 
and  Muscatels  in  sixty-pound  sacks;  also  Seedless  Muscatels  in  sacks 
of  sixty  and  thirty  pounds  respectively.  Cotton  sacks  are  commonly 
used  for  the  two  latter  brands.  The  brands  are  apt  to  vary  from  year 
to  year,  according  to  the  fancy  or  ideas  of  the  packers,  new  ones  of 
which  are  in  the  field  every  year.  Only  those  who  both  produce  and 
pack  have  anything  like  established  brands.  The  prices  paid  for 
raisins  in  sweatboxes  have  varied  in  different  years.  In  1887  an(*  1888, 
the  price  was  from  four  and  one-half  to  five  cents  per  pound.  In  1889, 
the  price  rose  to  five  and  five  and  three-fourths  cents,  and  in  one  or  two 
instances  six  cents  were  paid. 

The  Profits  and  Other  Items. — The  profit  varies,  of  course,  greatly, 
but  an  average  profit  may  be  considered  to  be  from  about  $125  to  $150 
per  acre.  The  yield  of  an  acre  is  variable,  but  from  eight  to  ten  tons  of 
fresh  grapes  is  said  not  to  have  been  uncommon.  In  some  cases  the  yield 
has  been  much  higher  and  the  profit  larger.  I  have  from  trustworthy 
source  the  statement  that  one  vineyardist  who  owns  only  a  few  acres, 
I  believe  only  five,  and  who  has  given  all  his  time  and  attention  to 
these  vines,  has  realized  as  much  as  $430  per  acre.  This  I  quote  only 
as  an  instance  of  what  might  be  done  with  care  and  expense  in  an 
exceptionally  favored  locality.  Some  few  growers  have  realized  $250 
profit  on  each  of  a  few  acres,  which  also  is  to  be  considered  excep- 
tional. I  believe  my  former  statement  of  $150  per  acre  as  being 
reliable  and  attainable  by  all  San  Bernardino  county  raisin-growers 
who  have  good  land,  and  who  give  their  vines  sufficient  care.  As 
another  instance  of  a  high  yield,  I  copy  below  an  account  of  the 
vintage  of  C.  Newton  Ross  of  Etiwanda,  San  Bernardino  county,  Cali- 
fornia. The  article  appeared  in  the  Press  and  Horticulturist  of  Riverside, 
September  2yth,  and  I  have  every  reason  to  consider  it  trustworthy. 
The  writer  adds  that  the  yield  is  extraordinary.  "Mr.  Ross  has 
seventeen  acres  of  8,000  vines  five  years  old  from  which  he  picked 
8,648  trays  of  grapes  that  average  twenty-five  pounds  to  the  tray, 
or  a  total  of  108  tons  of  grapes,  which  will  make  thirty-six  tons  of 
raisins, — equal  to  3,600  boxes, — over  200  boxes  to  the  acre.  This  is 


52  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

the  first  picking  only,  and  it  is  estimated  that  the  second  crop  will  be 
half  as  large  as  the  first,  which  will  give  a  total  yield  of  318  boxes  to 
the  acre.  Mr.  Ross  has  sold  his  first  crop  at  five  and  one-half  cents  per 
pound  in  the  sweatbox,  which  will  give  him  an  income  of  $242  an 
acre  on  the  first  crop,  and  half  as  much  more  on  the  second  crop  if  he 
succeeds  in  saving  it  in  good  shape,  or  a  total  income  of  $363  per  acre 
on  his  crop.  Mr.  Ross  estimates  that  $50  an  acre  will  cover  the  entire 
cost  of  taking  care  of  the  vineyard  and  putting  the  crop  in  the  sweat- 
box,  and  this  would  leave  him  a  net  income  of  $313  an  acre  for  his 
vineyard,  which  is  ten  per  cent  on  $3,130  per  acre."  But,  I  may  add, 
it  is  not  likely  that  such  a  profit  can  be  realized  year  after  year. 

As  regards  care  of  the  vineyard  and  expenses  of  running  the  same, 
they  vary,  of  course,  and  are  estimated  at  from  twenty  dollars 
upwards.  But  the  best  vineyardists  spend  from  thirty  to  forty  dollars 
per  acre  in  the  care  of  an  acre,  but  in  this  do  not  include  interest, 
trays  bought,  etc.,  nothing  in  fact  but  "care." 

Vines  were  first  planted  in  Riverside  by  Judge  John  Wesley  North 
in  1873.  Vacant  land  that  is  suitable  for  raisins  may  be  had  with 
water  for  $250  per  acre.  Some  land  with  choice  locations  is  held  at 
higher  prices.  The  highest  yield  of  raisins  in  San  Bernardino  has 
been  290,000  boxes  in  1888.  Of  this  Riverside  produced  150,000  boxes, 
Etiwanda  30,000 boxes,  and  Ontario  15,000  boxes.  The  raisin  shipments 
from  Riverside  during  the  fall  of  1889,  up  to  December  i2th,  amounted, 
according  to  the  Daily  Press,  to  216,000  boxes.  There  was  a  balance 
on  hand  of  7,000  boxes,  making  the  total  production  223,000  boxes. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  value  of  this  crop  was  $3,500,000  at  wholesale. 
I^ater  advices  give  to  the  county  265,000  boxes  as  last  season's  crop. 
The  San  Bernardino  raisins  are  superior  both  as  regards  quality  and 
size,  and  raisin  growing  and  curing  is  a  profitable  business,  eminently 
suited  to  the  settler  with  small  means,  who  cannot  invest  large  capital, 
nor  can  afford  to  wait  long  for  a  return.  No  dipped  or  sulphured 
raisins  have  ever  been  produced  in  the  district,  although  dipped  raisins 
would  prove  profitable.  Especially  does  this  refer  to  the  second  crop, 
which  ripens  enough  to  make  good  raisins,  but  which  cannot  be  cured 
when  the  early  rains  set  in. 

ORANGE  COUNTY  AND  SANTA  ANA. 

General  Remarks. — On  account  of  the  vine  disease  which  has  been 
injuring  the  Orange  county  raisin  and  wine  vineyards,  this  district  has 
a  special  interest  to  every  one  engaged  in  grape-growing.  While  the 
country  has  received  a  hard  blow  through  the  injury  and  destruction 
of  so  many  of  its  vineyards,  still  it  is  likely  that  it  will  recover  and 
rise  as  soon  as  the  vine  disease  leaves. 

Location. — The  Orange  county  raisin  district  lies  close  to  the  sea. 
Of  all  raisin  districts,  it  is  nearest  the  ocean,  the  average  distance  of 
the  raisin  vineyards  from  the  latter  being  eight  to  twelve  miles,  some 
few  perhaps  a  little  more.  As  will  be  seen,  the  district  resembles  in 
this  respect  some  of  the  Mediterranean  districts,  such  as  Malaga  and 
Smyrna,  where  the  vineyards  come  within  actual  reach  of  the  sea 
fogs.  On  one  side  of  the  Orange  county  district  we  have  the  ocean, 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  53 

on  the  opposite  side  it  is  bordered  by  rather  high  foothills,  beyond 
which  are  the  San  Bernardino  county  vineyards,  some  forty  to  sixty 
mileS  away. 

Climate. — The  nearness  to  the  ocean  modifies  the  climate  much. 
The  temperature  is  more  even  all  the  year  round  than  anywhere  else 
011  the  coast  where  raisins  are  grown.  The  extreme  of  heat  is  105 
degrees;  in  fact,  July  27,  1889,  it  was  104  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the 
shade,  while  in  the  winter  it  seldom  goes  lower  than  28  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  and  indeed  very,  very  rarely  as  low  as  that.  In  many 
places  there  is  no  frost  at  all,  except,  perhaps,  one  in  April,  which,  of 
course,  cannot  but  prove  damaging  to  the  vines.  This  absence  of 
heavy  frost,  which  is  beneficial  to  every  other  semi-tropical  product, 
is  not  favorable  to  the  vine.  The  grape  requires  heavy  frost  to  become 
dormant.  The  farther  south  we  go  the  less  frost  and  the  less  grapes, 
at  least  of  the  Asiatic  kind.  There  are,  as  we  know,  native  grapes  even 
in  tropical  countries,  but  they  are  adapted  to  their  surroundings  and 
cannot  be  considered  here.  The  proximity  to  the  coast  modifies  the 
air  considerably.  With  100  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the  shade,  which 
is  an  exception  here,  I  felt  as  warm  as  I  do  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley 
with  the  mercury  at  1 14; — the  two  extremes  in  both  places  affect  us 
just  the  same.  The  air  here  is  certainly  much  more  moist,  which  again 
must  have  a  marked  effect  upon  the  vine,  and  in  no  small  degree 
promote  fungoid  growths,  or  parasites  generally.  In  this  respect,  then, 
the  coast  vineyard  must  certainly  be  at  a  disadvantage.  The  fog  is 
not  an  unusual  visitor  in  the  district  between  the  coast  and  the  foot- 
hills, which,  in  fact,  covers  the  whole  area  ever  planted  in  raisin 
grapes.  For  days  in  succession  every  morning  is  foggy,  and  the  fog 
condenses  on  the  leaves  of  the  trees  and  falls  under  them  in  real 
showers,  making  the  adjoining  and  underlying  road  wet.  For  a  few 
days  again  the  sun  will  rise  bright,  again  to  be  followed  by  foggy 
mornings.  By  from  nine  to  eleven  o'clock  the  fog  is  again  gone  and 
the  sun  shines  brightly.  Kvery  evening  and  morning  there  is  a  heavy 
dew,  and  every  branch,  leaf  or  grass  is  then  dripping  wet.  Several 
mornings  when  the  fog  was  in  I  found  the  thermometer  at  62  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  while  at  noon  it  rose  tcrover  100. 

Soils  and  Ripening. — The  soil  here  is  the  very  best,  and  I  doubt  if  the 
same  fine  quality  of  soil  is  found  anywhere  else  in  California  over  the 
same  extended  territory.  I  ride  for  miles  and  miles,  everywhere  the 
finest  and  richest  loam  of  a  gray  color,  sometimes  a  little  drawing 
towards  slate  blue,  sometimes  again  towards  yellowish.  It  is  immensely 
rich,  and  can  hardly  be  improved.  There  is,  however,  especially  near 
Orange,  a  different  kind  of  soil  consisting  of  the  sand  loam,  but  inter- 
mixed with  very  coarse  gravel.  This  soil  is  warmer  but  consequently  not 
so  rich.  The  grapes  ripen  on  it  two  weeks  earlier,  but  yield  only  one- 
half  as  much  as  those  on  the  richest  loam  along  the  creeks.  The  vines 
planted  here  were  alone  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria.  Strangely  enough 
I  find  no  traces  of  Sultanas  or  currant,  which  latter,  it  seems,  should 
be  especially  adapted  to  the  coast  climate. 

The  Vineyards. — In  planting  a  vineyard,  rooted  vines  were  seldom 
used.  Cuttings  grew  so  readily  and  so  well  that  they  were  much 


54  THE     RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

preferred.  I  am  told  that  five  per  cent  loss  was  unusual.  It  must  be 
remarked  that  the  moister  is  the  air  the  better  it  is  for  any  kind  of 
cuttings.  The  moisture  sustains  and  nourishes  the  wood  while  it  is 
making  roots.  As  to  distances,  I  remarked  nothing  new.  Eight  by 
eight  or  eight  by  ten  feet  seems  the  generally  adopted  way.  The 
nature  of  the  soil  and  climate  make  higher  cultivation  a  necessity. 
McPherson  Bros.,  who  packed  the  largest  quantity  of  raisins  and 
owned  the  finest  vineyards,  told  me  that  they  plowed  and  cross- 
plowed  and  cultivated  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  times  every  season; 
in  fact  they  never  ceased  working  the  ground.  The  pruning  was 
begun  in  December,  or  as  soon  as  the  leaves  began  to  turn  and  fall. 
To  begin  with,  only  a  few  spurs  were  left  on  every  vine,  and  on  every 
spur  three  eyes,  including  the  bottom  eyes,  but  experience  taught  that 
that  way  was  not  the  very  best.  Gradually  more  space  was  given  the 
vines,  and  now  from  fifteen  to  twenty  spurs  to  a  vine  in  full  beaiing 
is  considered  proper.  Summer  pruning  is  only  practiced  in  some  of 
the  vineyards  where  the  ground  is  quite  wet.  The  most  profitable 
vineyards  were  irrigated.  The  nearer  the  coast  the  more  moisture 
there  is  in  the  soil.  Thus  three  miles  west  of  Santa  Ana  the  ground 
is  always  moist  enough  to  grow  grapes,  but  as  we  come  nearer  the 
foothills  to  the  east,  the  moisture  is  farther  down.  At  Tustin,  Orange, 
and  especially  at  McPherson,  irrigation  was  practiced  in  all  first-class 
vineyards.  Some  were  irrigated  in  the  winter  only,  and  this  was 
considered  the  best;  others  again  were  irrigated  also  once  in  summer, — 
a  practice  the  best  vineyardmen  considered  unnecessary  and  even 
injurious.  I  found  land  near  the  town  of  Santa  Ana  moist  one  inch 
below  the  surface,  where  no  irrigation  had  even  been  practiced. 
Sulphuring  was  used  everywhere  to  counteract  the  oidium.  For  this 
purpose  powdered  sulphur  was  dusted  through  the  vines  as  soon  as 
the  grapes  were  as  large  as  small  shot.  From  three  to  four  sulphur- 
ings  were  used  every  year  with  a  week  between  each.  Sulphuring 
for  the  colure  or  dropping  of  grapes  was  not  known;  in  fact  I  am 
informed  that  this  colure  was  seldom  known.  Besides  mildew,  there 
are  few  enemies  to  the  vine  here.  Grasshoppers,  leaf-hoppers  and 
grape  moths  have  never  been  known  to  molest  the  vines.  When  the 
late  vine-plague  struck  the  country  the  vineyardists  were  entirely 
unused  to  fight  any  enemy  of  the  vines  besides  the  oidium.  Sunscald 
of  the  berries  was  not  known. 

The  Crop  and  its  Curing. — The  grapes  begin  to  ripen  in  the  end  of 
August,  say  about  the  twenty-fifth,  on  the  gravelly  soil,  but  on  the 
cooler  and  richer  bottom  land  very  much  later,  or  about  the  middle 
of  September.  The  harvest  then  begins;  the  grapes  are  picked  on 
trays  two  and  a  half  by  three  feet  and  placed  to  dry  in  the  sun;  the 
drying  takes  two  or  three  weeks  or  more,  *and  is  accomplished  with 
some  difficulty.  Two  years  the  grapes  had  to  be  carried  out  to  the 
Mojave  desert,  to  be  dried  there.  The  trays  are  placed  among  the 
vines  in  such  a  way  that  the  trays  from  three  rows  are  placed  in  one. 
To  protect  them  from  the  fog  and  dew,  they  are  covered  with  canvas. 
This  is  done  in  two  ways.  One  way  is  to  put  small  pegs  on  one  side 
of  the  trays.  The  long  canvas  is  furnished  at  intervals  with  rings, 


THE     RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  55 

which  are  slipped  over  the  pegs  and  thus  held  steady  on  one  side. 
In  the  daytime  the  other  end  of  the  canvas  is  simply  thrown  back 
over  the  pegs;  in  the  night-time  the  canvas  is  again  turned  over  the 
trays,  resting  directly  on  the  grapes.  The  other  and  better  way  is  to 
run  three  wires  along  the  row  of  trays,  one  on  each  side  of  the  trays. 
The  canvas  is  furnished  with  rings  on  each  long  side,  which  are  made 
to  run  on  the  wire.  The  center  wire  is  run  a  little  higher  up,  and  here 
and  there  simply  supported  by  posts.  It  takes  comparatively  little 
time  every  evening  to  run  the  canvas  along  the  wires  and  cover  the 
trays.  The  expense  is  considerable,  both  in  furnishing  and  preparing 
the  canvas,  and  in  maintaining  and  operating  it.  The  peculiar  climatic 
conditions  of  the  district,  however,  necessitate  some  such  contrivance 
for  the  drying  of  the  grapes.  The  vines  seldom  bear  a  second  crop  of 
any  importance.  Sometimes  in  October  the  district  is  visited  by  a 
warm  and  dry  desert  wind  called  the  Santa  Ana  wind.  It  comes 
from  the  canon  of  the  Santa  Ana  river,  and  originates,  no  doubt,  in 
the  Mojave  desert,  and  rising  high  up  in  the  air  is  again  precipitated 
over  the  hiils  on  the  lowlands  towards  the  ocean.  This  Santa  Ana 
wind  is  always  welcome.  It  hastens  the  drying  of  the  grapes  just  as 
the  Terral  or  land  winds  from  the  plains  of  La  Mancha  hasten  the 
drying  of  the  grapes  of  Malaga  in  Spain. 

Yield  and  Profits. — The  yield  is  quite  small  on  the  gravelly  soil,  at 
the  most  being  three  tons  of  green  grapes  to  the  acre,  on  richer  land 
frow  six  to  seven  tons,  and  in  rare  instances  ten  tons  to  the  acre.  I 
heard  of  one  vineyard  where  the  owner  had  sold  from  twenty  acres 
of  Muscatels  thirty-three  tons  of  raisins  and  fifty-six  tons  of  green 
grapes,  equal  to  about  155  tons  from  the  lot.  Another  lot  of  three- 
year  Muscatels  bore  ten  tons  to  the  acre, — indeed  a  very  unusual  yield 
anywhere  for  Muscatels.  I  hear  reports  of  some  wonderful  yields  and 
high  profits,  but  am  informed  by  the  most  experienced  and  trust- 
worthy that  $125  per  acre  is  an  average  profit  which  can  be  relied 
upon  year  after  year.  The  first  Muscat  vines  were  planted  near 
Orange,  now  the  station  of  McPherson,  about  1873,  by  McPherson 
Bros.  The  acreage  in  grapevines  jti  the  Orange  county  district  was 
about  8,oco  acres;  but  probably  over  half  of  it  is  wine  grapes.  The 
highest  output  of  raisins  was  170,000  boxes  of  twenty-pounds  each. 

SAN  DIEGO  AND   EL  CAJON. 

Location  and  Acreage. — The  El  Cajon  and  Sweetwater  valleys  are 
the  rasin  centers  of  San  Diego  county.  The  former  contains  about 
four  thousand  acres  of  Muscat  vines,  the  latter  about  five  hundred 
acres.  Magnificent-looking  Muscat  grapes  are  also  grown  within 
three  miles  of  San  Diego.  Escondido  is  by  many  pronounced  superior 
for  raisin  grapes  to  any  of  the  other  places;  but  El  Cajon  is  the  present 
center  of  the  raisin  industry,  and  is  likely  to  remain  so  for  years.  The 
raisin-growing  section  of  the  two  valleys  lies  from  about  fifteen  to 
seventeen  miles  from  the  coast  line,  and  at  an  altitude  of  from  450  to 
500  feet.  The  arable  land  in  El  Cajon  valley  contains  50,000  acres, 
or  perhaps  less,  and  consists  of  the  rolling  bottom  of  the  valley,  but 
which  can  in  no  way  be  classed  as  bottom  land.  The  land  partakes 


56  THE     RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

more  of  the  characteristics  of  mesa  or  upland,  and  extends  on  all 
sides,  slightly  undulating  upon  the  sides  of  the  hills.  Lower  hills 
and  behind  them,  again,  higher  hills  surround  the  valley,  and  the 
high  peaks  beyond  the  Cuyamaca  Mountains  reach  4, 500  feet  or  more. 
None  of  these  hills  or  mountains  in  sight  are  covered  with  timber  of 
any  kind,  and  even  the  valleys  are  without  the  usual  sycamores.  Only 
in  the  very  narrow  bottom  of  the  creek  is  there  a  vegetation  of  willows 
and  shrubbery. 

Climate  and  Rainfall. — The  rainfall  of  the  valley  varies  considera- 
bly. It  has  been  known  to  be  as  little  as  six  inches  and  as  much  as 
twenty,  the  average  probably  being  about  twelve  inches,  distributed 
as  generally  elsewhere  in  California, — during  the  winter  months.  In 
summer  time  it  seldom  rains, — perhaps  a  shower  in  two  or  three  years. 
September  is  the  warmest  month,  or  at  least  the  month  with  the 
greatest  number  of  warm  days.  The  highest  temperature  reached  in 
the  shade  in  El  Cajon  is  105  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  in  Sweetwater 
valley  108,  and  the  coldest  in  the  winter  twenty-four  degrees  Fahren- 
heit on  the  upper  mesa  land,  while  on  the  lower  land,  close  to  the 
river,  the  temperature  falls  low  enough  to  kill  orange  trees,  probably 
somewhere  about  eighteen  degrees  Fahrenheit.  September  is  freer 
from  fog  than  any  other  month.  During  the  other  summer  months 
there  is  fog  in  the  morning  two  days  out  of  three.  The  fog,  however, 
is  warm  and  pleasant  to  all  but  consumptives,  but,  nevertheless,  leaves 
behind  a  soaking  dew  on  all  vegetation,  and  is  even  heavy  enough  to 
moisten  the  dust  on  the  roads.  The  moisture  on  this  mesa  land — by 
which  is  meant  all  the  land  between  the  hills,  which  are  too  steep 
to  be  plowed,  and  the  actual  river  bottom  lands — is  near  the  surface. 
In  the  El  Cajon  and  Sweetwater  valleys,  the  water  is  found  on  this 
mesa  at  from  eight  to  twenty  feet,  or  at  an  average  of  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  feet.  On  little  hills  or  knobs  in  the  valley  the  water  is  found 
at  about  the  same  depth.  It  is  strange  that  with  the  water  so  near 
the  surface  no  perennial  vegetation  of  either  shrubbery  or  trees  should 
be  found  on  this  land.  The  grapevines  will  grow  on  it  without  irriga- 
tion; in  fact  none  is  used  anywhere  now,  but  no  doubt  it  would  prove 
profitable  to  irrigate  somewhat,  so  as  to  increase  the  crops  of  grapes. 
Water  can  be  had  through  the  Cuyamaca  flume,  but  has  so  far  not 
been  used.  The  vines  do  not  grow  after  August  ist,  and  may  stop 
growing  sooner. 

Soils. — The  soils  of  the  district  are  of  four  kinds:  First,  reddish 
clay  mixed  with  gravel,  the  color  changing  between  light  chocolate 
and  deep  reddish.  This  soil  is  considered  by  many  the  most  desirable. 
Second,  a  steel  or  slate  gray  adobe  with  much  gravel  of  a  coarse 
nature.  Third,  black  adobe  with  little  gravel  Fourth,  alluvial  sandy 
soil,  apparently  consisting  of  decomposed  granite  mixed  with  much 
vegetable  matter.  This  soil  is  coarse,  of  a  dark  steel-gray  color,  very 
easily  worked;  it  is  considered  the  best  for  raisins,  but  it  contains 
streaks  where  they  will  not  grow  and  prove  profitable.  The  last- 
named  soil  goes  gradually  over  into  common  alluvial  soil  of  a  sandy 
nature.  The  two  last-named  soils  are  found  principally  in  the  Sweet- 
water  valley. 


THE     RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  57 

The  Vines  and  the  Vineyard. — In  planting,  cuttings  are  generally 
used,  not  because  they  are  most  preferred,  but  because  good  rooted 
vines  cannot  be  obtained.  The  distance  to,  and  the  difficulty  of 
reaching,  this  district  was  formerly  such  that  roots  would  suffer  in 
transit  and  would  rapidly  dry,  while  cuttings  could  be  had  handy 
and  fresh.  The  vines,  originally  planted  eight  by  eight  feet,  have 
been  given  more  distance  of  late,  some  vineyardists  planting  them  eight 
by  twelve  feet,  while  others  prefer  twelve  by  twelve  or  ten  by  twelve 
feet.  The  varieties  used  are  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria  only.  This 
variety  happened  to  be  the  one  that  was  imported  first  from  Riverside, 
I  believe,  and  it  was  afterwards  propagated  by  every  one.  The  variety 
as  grown  in  El  Cajon  is  the  type  of  Muscat  of  Alexandria  with  oblong 
berries,  large  clusters  with  loosely  hanging  berries  and  large  strong 
stems.  The  shape  of  the  vines  is  erect,  with  a  few  center  shoots, 
strong  and  upright.  The  vines  commence  bearing  the  second  year, 
and  are  said  to  pay  expenses  of  caring  for  in  the  third  year,  but  I' 
think  it  would  be  safer  to  say  in  the  fourth  year. 

As  regards  cultivation  and  plowing,  many  plow  both  ways  and 
harrow  and  cultivate  crosswise  several  times  until  the  ist  of  June, 
when,  on  account  of  the  dry  ness  of  the  soil,  no  more  weeds  start  and 
no  cultivation  of  any  kind  is  needed.  The  large  majority  of  the  vine- 
yards are  splendidly  kept,  not  a  weed  being  seen  anywhere  for  miles 
around.  Winter  pruning  commences  as  soon  as  the  leaves  fall.  In 
former  years  from  five  to  nine  spurs  were  left  in  pruning  and  two  or 
three  eyes  on  each  spur,  but  it  has  been  found  profitable  and  judicious 
to  leave  more  spurs,  so  as  to  take  the  sap  in  the  spring,  and  now  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  spurs  with  two  or  three  eyes  each  are  left  every  winter. 
Spring  or  summer  pruning  has  only  been  practiced  the  last  two 
seasons,  and  being  found  very  profitable  is  now  adopted  by  everybody. 
The  vines  are  not  pinched,  but  headed  well  back  as  soon  as  the  grapes 
are  well  set.  This  method  has  in  this  district  the  following  advantages: 
It  gives  better  shade  to  the  bunches  on  account  of  the  production  of  a 
strong  second  growth;  it  causes  the  bunches  to  fill  better,  and,  finally, 
it  leaves  more  room  between  the  rows  of  the  vines.  I  was  told  that 
any  of  these  three  advantages  would  warrant  the  system  of  summer 
pruning  to  be  generally  adopted.  The  valley  has  been  unusually  free 
from  any  insect  pest,  such  as  leaf-hoppers  (Erythroneura  comes)  cater- 
pillars, grasshoppers,  etc.,  but  suffers  from  mildew,  not,  however,  to 
the  extent  that  the  presence  of  almost  daily  fogs  would  lead  us  to 
suppose.  Sulphuring  is  now  practiced  to  some  extent,  but  not  as 
much  as  it  should  be.  The  sulphur  is  applied  with  bellows  as  soon  as 
the  berries  are  the  size  of  shot,  but  not  before.  Sulphuring  for  colure, 
or  the  dropping  of  the  grapes  when  very  small,  is  not  practiced,  nor 
was  it  ever  suspected  that  it  would  help.  Colure  is  quite  common, 
much  more  so  on  sandy  soil.  Sunscald  is  frequent  but  not  bad.  I 
saw  quite  a  number  of  grapes  scalded  on  every  vine,  but  not  enough 
to  warrant  any  special  measures  to  be  taken  as  a  protection.  The 
grapes  have  during  this  and  last  year  ripened  by  the  first  days  of 
September,  but  it  is  generally  much  later,  or  at  about  the  loth  of 
September,  when  the  vintage  usualry  commences.  The  picking  was, 


58  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

until  last  year,  done  fry  white  labor,  but  the  same  was  so  very  difficult 
to  obtain  that  Chinese  were  then  employed.  They  gave  satisfaction 
to  some,  while  to  others  not.  Some  of  the  principal  growers  are  this 
year  (1889)  going  to  employ  Chinese  help  at  $1.25  per  day,  at  which 
price  they  board  themselves. 

The  Crop. — The  grapes  are  dried  on  redwood  trays  made  of  sawed 
redwood  shingles,  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick.  The  trays  are  made 
two  by  three  feet.  The  best  growers  are  this  year  going  to  assort  the 
grapes  when  putting  them  on  the  trays.  This  was  never  done  before, 
but  will  be  of  great  advantage.  A  tray  will  average  eighteen  pounds 
of  fresh  grapes,  which  will  take  about  one  month  to  dry, — never  less 
than  three  weeks.  There  is  but  little  second  crop,  generally  none 
that  can  be  saved.  September  is  the  warmest  month,  or  else  the  grapes 
could  not  be  dried.  At  a  temperature  of  103  degrees  Fahrenheit,  it 
was  found  that  grapes  scalded  or  cooked  while  on  the  trays.  This  is, 
however,  very  rarely  the  case.  From  ninety-five  to  one  hundred 
degrees  is  considered  the  best  temperature  at  which  the  best  raisins 
are  made.  The  sweatboxes  used  formerly  were  two  by  three  feet  and 
ten  inches  deep;  but  of  late  eight  inches  and  six  inches  in  depth  is 
considered  the  best,  on  account  of  the  facility  with  which  they  can  be 
handled.  As  to  packing,  many  advocate  twenty-pound  boxes,  that 
are  only  four  and  one-half  inches  deep,  contending  that  they  will  hold 
twenty  pounds  of  loose  raisins.  Few  Dehesas  are  put  up,  the  general 
brands  being  three  crown  London  layers,  and  three  crown  loose 
Muscats.  Some  are  also  put  up  in  fancy  paper  boxes.  This  year  the 
valley  has  two  packing  companies,  who  buy  raisins  in  sweatboxes,  and 
pay  from  four  to  five  and  a  half  cents  per  pound.  The  yield  per  acre 
is  from  two  to  three  tons  of  green  grapes,  I  should  say  this  year  nearer 
two  than  three  tons.  I  saw,  however,  some  that  would  average  five 
tons  per  acre,  but  this  land  was  favorably  situated  in  a  moister  place 
than  is  generally  found  in  Sweetwater  valley,  and  the  vines  were  yet 
growing  on  August  2ist.  I  heard  of  much  greater  yields,  so  extraor- 
dinary indeed  that  they  are  not  likely  to  return  again.  From  five  to 
seven  tons  to  the  acre  is  a  really  rare  yield,  even  on  the  best  land, 
where  the  water  is  within  six  or  seven  feet  of  the  surface.  This  shows 
me  conclusively  that  judicious  irrigation  would  materially  increase  the 
crop,  and  greatly  improve  the  uniform  size  of  the  berries.  The  profit 
on  an  acre  of  bearing  Muscat  vines  is  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  dollars  per  acre.  The  latter  is  the  most  any  one  realized, 
and  thirty-five  dollars  is  considered  a  good  profit.  The  expense  of 
running  a  vineyard  is  hard  to  ascertain,  but  those  best  informed  told  me 
that  forty  dollars  per  acre  would  be  an  average;  this  of  course  includes 
everything.  The  small  amount  of  weeds  and  the  absence  of  irrigation 
materially  lessens  the  expenses  of  the  El  Caj  on*  vineyards. 

Good  vineyard  or  raisin  land  can  be  had  for  seventy-five  dollars 
per  acre.  No  vineyards  in  bearing  have  changed  hands.  Last  year's 
(1888)  pack  of  the  whole  of  San  Diego  county  was  variously  estimated 
at  from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand  boxes,  and  this  year  at  sixty  thousand 
boxes  of  twenty  pounds  each. 

The  unanimous  verdict  of  the  best  growers  in  Kl  Caj  on  is  that  want 
of  moisture  is  the  greatest  drawback  to  raisin  culture  there.  And  I 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  59 

agree  with  them  in  this,  but  also  think  it  might  to  some  extent  be 
remedied,  as  water  for  irrigation  is  close  at  hand.  At  last  I  must  say 
a  few  words  as  to  the  quality  of  the  El  Cajon  and  Sweetwater  valley 
raisins.  They  are  very  sweet,  highly  flavored,  the  skin  is  thin,  and 
the  seeds  are  small  and  few.  But  while  some  of  the  berries  are  of  very 
large  size,  there  are  comparatively  few  which  would  be  considered 
large,  and  even  the  best  bunches  have  too  many  small  berries.  The 
grapes  that  had  plenty  of  water  were  simply  magnificent,  and  a  gen- 
eral irrigation  system  would  greatly  improve  the  size  of  the  grapes,  as 
well  as  the  quality  of  the  crop.  The  best  selected  raisins  from  this 
valley  must  be  counted  as  among  the  very  best.  The  constant  fog 
injures  the  bloom  on  the  raisins  to  some  extent,  and  most  raisins  that 
I  saw  were  in  this  respect  deficient;  but  their  color  generally  was  very 
good.  The  Sweetwater  valley  raisins  are  in  this  respect  finer  than 
those  of  El  Cajon;  they  are  also  farther  inland,  and  have  less  fog. 
The  Escondido  raisins  are  said  to  be  superior,  but  I  saw  none  of  them. 
While  many  vines  have  been  planted  in  this  locality  of  late,  only  one 
or  two  small  vineyards  are  in  bearing. 

OTHER  RAISIN  DISTRICTS. 

Of  late  raisin  grapes  have  been  planted  in  considerable  quantities  in 
Salt  river  valley  and  in  Gila  river  valley  in  Arizona,  but  the  outcome 
of  the  venture  is  yet  unknown,  at  least  to  us.  The  growers  of  Arizona 
claim  for  their  localities  the  advantage  of  great  earliness,  as  the  grapes 
ripen  there  in  July,  or  a  month  earlier  than  in  California. 

In  the  Argentine  Republic  in  South  America  it  is  said  that  the  Span- 
ish immigrants  have  planted  many  raisin  grapes  during  the  last  few 
years.  In  Australia  we  are  also  informed  that  dipped  raisins,  and  per- 
haps even  sun-dried  ones,  have  been  produced,  but  even  there  the 
result  is  unknown  to  us.  So  far  these  raisins  have  cut  no  figure  in  the 
general  market,  but  it  is  not  improbable  that  many  localities  in  those 
vast  countries  will  be  found  where  Muscat  grapes  can  be  profitably 
grown  and  cured. 


CLIMATIC  CONDITIONS,  SOILS,  LOCATION  AND 

IRRIGATION. 

CLIMATIC  CONDITIONS  FAVORABLE  AND  UNFAVORABLE 
TO  THE  RAISIN  INDUSTRY. 

Limits  of  the  Raisin  Districts. — It  is  an  interesting  fact,  and  by  no 
means  a  coincidence,  that  the  raisin  districts  of  the  world  are  found 
on  or  between  the  same  latitudes.  Thus  we  find  the  California  dis- 
tricts between  latitudes  32°,  75'  and  38°,  75'.  The  latitude  of  Smyrna 
is  38°,  28',  7",  that  of  Malaga  in  Spain  36°,  75',  Valencia  39°,  25', 
Denia  38°,  50',  the  Grecian  Islands  and  Morea  37°  and  38°,  and 
finally  Huasco  in  Chile  28°  south  latitude.  That  the  latter  place  is 
situated  so  much  farther  south  or  so  much  nearer  the  equator  cannot 
exactly  be  considered  exceptional,  as  it  conforms  with  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  Southern  hemispheres  as  compared  with  those 
on  the  northern  half  of  the  globe.  In  Europe  the  Muscat  grape  for 
raisin  purposes  is  not  a  success  north  of  the  fortieth  degree  of  lati- 
tude. While  the  limits  in  California  and  Chile  are  not  yet  fully 
ascertained,  it  may  be  presumed  that,  as  far  as  regards  this  country, 
these  limits  will  not  differ  very  much  from  those  of  Spain  and  Asia 
Minor.  Only  years  if  not  centuries  of  experience  will  finally  decide 
where  and  where  not  raisin  grapes  can  be  grown  and  cured  to  per- 
fection. While  the  vines  and  the  grapes  can  be  grown  in  many 
places,  the  proper  curing  of  the  raisins  is  attended  with  more  or  less 
difficulty  in  the  various  districts.  With  proper  modes  of  curing  the 
grapes,  and  by  protecting  them  from  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather, 
the  limits  of  the  successful  raisin  districts  may  be  extended  consid- 
erably both  north  and  south. 

Dry  Seasons,  Spring  and  Fall  Rains. — The  climate  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean basin,  as  well  as  of  the  raisin  districts  of  the  New  World,  present 
the  peculiarity  of  having  only  two  distinct  seasons,  one  dry  and  warm, 
and  one  cold  and  wet.  There  are  other  parts  of  the  world  also  char- 
acterized by  a  dry  and  a  wet  season,  for  instance  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  etc. ,  but  they  differ  in  the  important  point,  that  whereas  the 
climate  of  the  raisin  districts  is  dry  during  the  growing  or  summer 
season,  Mexico  has  then  its  greatest  rainfall.  While  grape-growing 
may  not  be  impossible  under  such  circumstances,  the  curing  and  dry- 
ing of  raisins  is  impossible,  except  with  the  aid  of  costly  and  burden- 
some appliances,  the  expense  of  which  will  very  much  increase  the 
cost  of  producing  the  raisins.  The  climate  of  the  raisin  centers  is  by 
no  means  uniform.  As  a  rule,  the  farther  north  we  go  the  less  is  the 
distinction  between  the  dry  and  the  wet  season,  the  shorter  is  the 
former  and  the  longer  the  season  of  rain.  Experienpe  shows  that  the 
less  this  distinction  between  the  seasons  is  marked,  and  the  shorter 
the  rainless  season,  the  less  favorable  is  the  climate  for  the  raisin 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTPY.  61 

industry.  The  longer  the  dry  season,  and  the  less  rain  during  the 
same,  the  more  favorable  is  the  locality  for  raisin  drying  and  curing, 
supposing,  of  course,  other  necessary  conditions  are  not  absent.  This 
absence  of  summer  rains  and  cold  fog  is  the  most  important  climatic 
condition,  and  the  one  that  more  than  any  other  decides  upon  the 
advantages  of  any  certain  locality  for  the  industry  under  our  consid- 
eration. A  perusal  of  the  reports  from  the  different  raisin  districts  will 
convince  us  of  this.  For  California  we  need  not  refer  to  any  special 
reports,  as  the  newspapers  are  full  of  them  every  year  from  May  to 
November,  and  it  will  suffice  to  state  that  any  large  amount  of  rain 
after  the  beginning  of  June,  and  especially  in  September,  October  and 
November,  when  the  raisins  are  curing,  is  considered  very  detrimental, 
and  sure  to  cause  much  loss.  Heavy  and  continued  rainfall  during 
the  drying  season  would  not  only  injure  the  raisins,  but  might  even 
totally  ruin  the  crop.  Any  district  where  year  after  year  such  showers 
occur,  would  not  be  considered  favorable  for  the  raisin  industry, 
and  would  no  doubt  be  given  up  to  something  else.  To  show  that 
these  same  conditions  also  exist  in  the  Mediterranean  raisin  districts, 
we  will  here  quote  a  few  extracts  from  the  United  States  consular  reports 
from  there.  Consul  W.  E.  Stevens,  United  States  consul  at  Smyrna, 
writes :  *  '  *  It  happens  occasionally  that  rain  falls  during  the  vintage 
time,  causing  heavy  loss  to  growers  through  the  inevitable  deterioration 
in  quality.  This  was  the  case  last  season  (1883),  and  large  quanti- 
ties of  raisins  were  in  consequence  shipped  to  France  to  be  made  into 
spirits."  From  Valencia  another  consul  writes:  "  In  the  event  of  wet 
and  damp  weather,  the  hurdles  (or  grape  mats)  are  piled  up  in  sheds 
covered  with  mats  or  painted  canvas.  Of  course  in  this  case  the  dry- 
ing is  retarded,  the  quality  of  the  fruit  deteriorates,  and  the  expense 
and  labor  of  curing  are  considerably  increased."  Two  years  ago  ten 
thousand  tons  were  thus  damaged  in  the  Denia  district.  While  the 
Mediterranean  districts  are  comparatively  rainless  during  the  summer 
time,  still  they  are  far  less  so  than  California.  The  rainy  and  dry  sea- 
sons there  are  less  distinct  than  with  us. 

Among  the  Grecian  Islands,  the  production  of  currants  is  confined 
to  only  a  few  localities,  principally  on  account  of  the  untimely  rainfall 
on  the  other  islands.  Dr.  Davy  {Ionian  Islands,  page  320)  tells  us:  ' '  The 
attempts  to  extend  the  culture  of  the  currant  to  some  other  islands  have 
been  only  partial,  and  attended  with  doubtful  success.  This,  it  is  to 
be  understood,  is  not  owing,  as  has  been  asserted,  to  any  unfitness  of 
the  soil  on  other  islands,  as  it  is  analogous  on  them  all,  but  rather 
to  some  difference  of  climate,  especially  about  the  times  of  ripening, 
gathering  and  drying  of  the  fruit,  consisting  in  greater  liability  to 
rain,  a  heavy  fall  of  which  is  ruinous  to  the  crop,  and  which,  during 
the  period  of  gathering  in  the  currant  islands,  is  considered  a  great 
calamity. ' '  But  even  in  Zante  and  Cephalonia  in  Greece,  the  crop  is 
sometimes  greatly  injured  on  account  of  rain.  Thus  in  1857  a  crop 
of  fifty  thousand  tons  was  expected,  but  disastrous  rains  in  August 
injured  the  raisin  grapes  to  such  an  extent  that  seventeen  thousand 
tons  were  totally  destroyed,  and  twelve  thousand  tons  became  unfit 

*  Consular  Reports,  No.  41^,  June,  1884,  page  745. 


62  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

for  anything  else  than  distilling.  Malaga  in  Spain,  which  of  all  the 
districts  most  resembles  California,  has  undergone  similar  experiences, 
both  damaging  and  ruinous. 

It  is  thus  that  the  fall  rains  are  everywhere  feared  the  most,  the  more 
so  where  they  may  be  expected  with  regularity,  and  where  the  district  is 
so  situated  that  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  not  powerful  enough  to  rapidly 
dry  the  injured  crop.  Thus  in  Valencia  the  rains  are  feared  more 
than  at  Malaga.  In  the  latter  place  the  sun  is  powerful  enough  to 
dry  the  raisins,  and  only  repeated  showers  would  injure  the  crop.  Our 
experience  is  very  much  the  same,  and  the  early  fall  rains  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  State  are  to  be  feared  much  more  than  rains  at 
the  same  time  farther  south,  where  a  few  showers  would  soon  be  suc- 
ceeded by  warm  weather,  and  a  hot  sun  powerful  enough  to  dry  the 
partially  cured  grapes.  On  account  of  local  conditions,  certain  parts 
of  Central  California  are  freer  from  these  fall  rains  than  the  more 
southern  districts,  but  this  disadvantage  is  counteracted  by  the  greater 
amount  of  warm  weather  and  drying  winds  just  at  a  time  when  they 
are  most  needed.  But  while  the  southern  part  of  the  State  is  in  this 
respect  not  as  favorably  situated  as  some  other  parts,  the  disadvantage 
is  greatly  counteracted  by  the  warmer  and  drier  fall  weather  in  October 
and  November,  and  by  drying  winds  which  are  often  able  to  desiccate 
the  moistened  raisins  in  a  very  few  days. 

Spring  rains  in  May  or  even  in  the  early  part  of  June  cannot  be 
considered  greatly  detrimental  to  the  vines.  On  the  contrary,  if  only 
occurring  at  long  intervals,  one  or  two  showers  say  during  the  season, 
they  are  rather  beneficial  than  otherwise.  In  California  I  have  never 
known  them  to  injure  the  crop,  except  if  accompanied  by  heavy  hail. 
Much  alarm  is  regularly  felt  every  time  such  a  shower  happens  to 
come,  but  after  it  is  well  over  it  will  generally  be  found  that  the 
vines  look  fresher  and  better,  the  ozone  and  ammonia  which  was 
brought  down  by  the  rain  having  acted  as  powerful  fertilizers  for  the 
grape-leaves,  and  increased  their  vigor  and  growth.  The  only  thing 
that  might  prove  injurious  at  this  or  any  other  time  of  the  growing 
season  would  be  continued  cloudy  weather  before  or  after  such  showers, 
which  would  cause  mildew.  Such  weather  has  to  my  knowledge  never 
been  experienced.  Occasionally  spring  rains  also  bring  frost,  and  this 
of  course  is  one  of  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  raisin-vines. 

Winter  Rains. — In  order  that  the  raisin  grapes  may  develop  and 
mature  without  the  aid  of  irrigation,  the  winter  rains  should  be  suffi- 
cient to  keep  the  soil  moist  during  the  dry  months.  The  absolute 
quantity  of  rain  thus  necessary  varies  in  different  localities.  In  Cali- 
fornia, generally,  we  would  say  that  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches 
of  rain  would  be  required  every  year  to  ke£p  the  soil  sufficiently  moist 
to  grow  Muscatel  grapes  without  irrigation.  The  nearer  we  go  to  the 
coast  the  less  rainfall  is  required  to  supply  this  moisture,  and  the  farther 
we  go  inland,  the  more  elevated  the  land,  the  less  rain  is  needed.  Thus 
a  regular  rainfall  of  twenty-four  inches  would  possibly  not  suffice  on  the 
low  plains  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  while  in  El  Cajon  in  San  Diego 
county  one-half  of  this  rainfall  is  enough  to  grow  the  vines  and  mature 
small  crops  of  very  good  and  superior  grapes. 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  63 

It  matters  not  from  where  the  moisture  comes, — from  rain,  seepage, 
moist  air  or  irrigation, — as  long  as  it  is  not  present  in  excess  nor  too 
scant.  In  El  Caj  on  valley  the  moisture  appears  to  be  held  in  suspense 
in  impervious  strata,  or  perhaps  in  strata  which  contain  and  preserve 
the  moisture  as  does  a  sponge.  In  parts  of  Chile,  as  well  as  in  Malaga 
and  Smyrna,  the  winter  rainfall  is  sufficient  to  grow  crops  of  fair  size 
and  good  quality,  but  it  is  almost  certain  that  judicious  irrigation 
in  any  of  these  places  proves  beneficial  and  remunerative.  Of  all 
the  present  raisin  districts,  Smyrna  enjoys  the  greatest  rainfall, 
often  as  much  as  thirty  odd  inches  of  rain.  Of  localities  which  grow 
raisins  profitably  with  the  least  possible  amount  of  rain,  and  witnout 
irrigation,  Huasco  and  El  Cajon  take  the  lead.  In  Central  California, 
as  well  as  in  San  Bernardino  county,  no  raisin  culture  would  be  pos- 
sible with  the  natural  rainfall.  In  foreign  countries,  Valencia  and  the 
Grecian  Islands,  as  well  as  Morea,  are  similarly  situated  in  not  having 
sufficient  rainfall  to  produce  paying  crops. 

As  a  rule  it  may  be  said  that,  where  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  to  grow 
the  Muscats  without  irrigation  and  cause  them  to  bear  good  crops,  the 
fall  rains  are  also  too  frequent  and  too  injurious  to  the  drying  grapes  to 
allow  a  profitable  raisin  cult.  The  proper  amount  of  moisture  necessary 
to  perfect  the  grapes  cannot  be  ascertained  by  the  aid  of  the  rain  gauge. 
While,  as  we  have  said,  from  twenty  to  thirty  inches  may  be  enough  in 
Smyrna,  from  seven  to  ten  inches  suffice  in  HI  Cajon,  and  in  Chile 
even  less  is  required.  The  proper  amount  of  moisture  can  best  be  told 
by  the  state  of  growth  of  the  vines.  The  vines  must  have  moisture 
enough  to  be  kept  growing  up  to  the  very  time  of  the  maturity  of 
the  grapes.  The  proper  sign  of  this  is  the  green  and  fresh  color  of 
the  young  shoots  or  the  tips,  combined  with  a  certain  vigor  of  the  ten- 
drils. When  the  tips  cease  to  grow,  and  the  tendrils  begin  to  dry  up, 
then  the  moisture  has  begun  to  give  out,  and  irrigation  should  have 
been  resorted  to ;  the  winter  rains  were  not  sufficient. 

Frosts  in  Spring  and  Winter. — One  of  the  frequent  effects  of  spring 
showers  is  spring  frosts.  They  are  always  injurious  to  the  tender 
Muscat  vine,  and  if  occurring  more -than  once  during  the  same  spring 
may  entirely  ruin  the  crop.  In  California  such  frosts  occur  some- 
times in  April,  and  observations  inform  us  that  they  are  most  to 
be  feared  between  the  tenth  and  fifteenth  of  that  month,  while  some- 
times they  come  even  later.  The  young  buds  are  then  either  opening 
or  fully  developed  into  shoots,  which  the  lightest  frost  will  blacken 
and  cause  to  dry  up.  Where  the  vines  are  irrigated  and  strong,  one 
such  frost  may  not  ruin  the  crop,  as  new  buds  will  start  out  in  place  of 
the  old  ones  destroyed,  and  new  shoots  and  new  blossoms  will  come 
out.  I  have  seen  as  many  as  three  such  crops  of  shoots  develop  from 
the  winter  buds,  but  each  succeeding  crop  of  such  shoots  is  weaker 
than  the  preceding  one,  and  bears  less  and  later  grapes.  Happily, 
these  frosts  occur  but  very  seldom  in  the  Central  and  Southern  Cali- 
fornia raisin  districts,  and  during  fifteen  years  of  observation  I  have 
seen  only  three  such  frost  years  in  which  the  branches  were  partially 
injured.  In  neither  of  these  seasons  was  the  crop  materially  injured 
as  to  quantity,  the  principal  effect  of  the  frost  being  a  retarding  of  the 


64  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

crop  for  a  week  or  more.  Smoking  of  vineyards  can  only  be  success- 
fully carried  out  in  small  valleys  sheltered  from  heavy  winds,  but  on 
the  open  plains  such  smoking  is  accompanied  with  difficulties,  and  its 
effect  is  uncertain.  The  growing  of  a  limited  number  of  windbreaks 
has  in  the  Fresno  district  no  doubt  modified  the  climate,  and  made 
spring  frosts  rarer  and  less  to  be  feared. 

While  the  spring  frosts  are  injurious  to  the  grapes,  winter  frosts  are 
on  the  other  hand  most  beneficial,  if  not  necessary  to  a  continued 
raisin  cult.  The  raisin  grape  must  have  a  season  of  recuperation,  and 
winter  frost  is  the  only  climatic  phenomenon  which,  without  injury  to 
the  vine,  can  procure  it  that  rest  which  is  so  necessary  for  all  decid- 
uous trees,  by  nature  destined  to  enjoy  alternate  periods  of  growth  and 
sleep.  The  absence  of  frost  causes  the  sap  of  the  vine  to  circulate  more 
or  less  in  the  wood,  and  the  vine  never  ceases  to  grow.  This  is  one  of 
the  reasons  why  our  deciduous  vines  do  not  succeed  well  in  the  tropics, 
where  there  are  no  cold  seasons  to  cause  the  leaves  to  fall  and  the  sap 
to  become  dormant.  In  the  tropics,  therefore,  our  deciduous  vines  keep 
on  growing,  set  little  or  no  fruit,  and  prove  unprofitable.  This  phe- 
nomenon is  shared  there  with  other  trees,  and  peaches,  pears  and  apples 
act  in  the  same  manner.  They  all  appear  to  need  the  rest  afforded 
them  by  the  winter  frosts.  It  is  also  a  question  of  very  great  import- 
ance, whether  the  continued  and  unnatural  activity  of  the  vine,  at  a 
time  when  it  should  be  dormant,  does  not  invite  diseases  of  various 
kinds,  which  find  the  exhausted  vines  unfit  to  withstand  their  ravages. 
It  may  be  possible  that  mat  nero,  the  vine  plague  and  other  similar 
and  as  yet  insufficiently  understood  diseases,  are  especially  destructive 
to  vines  growing  in  frost-free  climates,  while  in  colder  climates  they 
make  but  little  headway,  the  vines  as  it  were  being  protected  by  the 
heavy  frosts,  which  either  kill  the  enemies  of  the  vine  or  enable  the 
latter  to  gather  the  necessary  strength  to  battle  with  them  through  the 
growing  season.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  at  present  the 
healthiest  vineyards  are  those  growing  in  countries  where  winter  frosts 
are  severe,  but  on  the  other  hand  we  know  that  grapevines  have 
been  growing  for  ages  in  temperate  climates,  where  the  frosts,  even  if 
not  entirely  unknown,  are  still  of  very  rare  occurrence. 

Summer  Temperature. — The  temperature  in  summer  time  must  be 
sufficient  to  properly  ripen  the  grapes,  but  must  not  be  so  great  as  to 
injure  them  either  while  they  hang  on  the  vines,  or  while  they  are 
exposed  to  dry  on  the  trays.  The  average  heat  required  to  do  the 
work  of  maturing  is  not  exactly  known,  but  it  is  certain  that  a  very 
high  degree  is  not  absolutely  needed  to  produce  sweet  grapes.  As  far 
as  our  experience  goes,  it  seems  that  cool  weather,  with  the  average 
temperature  of  ninety  degrees  Fahrenheit,  v/puld  be  most  beneficial  in 
the  fore  part  of  the  season,  while  when  the  grapes  begin  to  ripen  a 
greater  heat  is  desirable.  It  is  not  the  warmest  countries  nor  the 
warmest  seasons  which  produce  the  earliest  grapes.  Thus  while  the 
season  of  1888  was  in  California  unusually  cool,  with  the  thermometer 
seldom  reaching  one  hundred  degrees  in  June  and  July,  the  raisin  sea- 
son was  nevertheless  a  very  early  one,  and  much  earlier  than  seasons 
remarkable  for  their  early  high  temperature.  In  Malaga  and  Smyrna, 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  65 

the  heat  seldom  reaches  one  hundred  degrees,  and  the  grapes  ripen 
several  weeks  earlier  than  in  Fresno,  where  the  summer  temperature 
averages  ten  degrees  higher.  In  Fresno,  on  the  contrary,  the  season 
is  earlier  than  in  Southern  California,  where  probably  the  seabreezes 
retard  the  ripening  of  the  grapes.  A  temperature  of  over  one  hundred 
and  five  degrees  proves  injurious  to  unprotected  or  exposed  grapes  in 
the  central  region  of  California,  but  in  San  Diego  county  several 
degrees  less  is  sufficient  to  scald  the  grapes  or  give  them  a  cooked  flavor 
if  they  are  already  exposed  on  the  trays  to  dry.  It  is  certain  that  with 
an  average  highest  temperature  of  ninety  degrees,  the  grapes  develop 
better  and  become  larger  and  sweeter  than  where  the  heat  is  excessive 
and  reaches  one  hundred  and  ten  degrees  or  more.* 

The  time  when  the  greatest  temperature  occurs  is  of  practical 
importance.  Excessive  heat  can  be  tolerated  by  grapes  protected  by 
leaves  and  branches  or  otherwise  sheltered,  but  if  it  happens  at  a  time 
when  the  bunches  are  exposed  to  dry  on  the  trays,  the  injury  to  the 
berries  will  be  great  or  even  ruinous.  Early  localities  are  especially  apt 
to  suffer  in  this  way,  and  it  is  well  to  experiment  before  too  much  con- 
fidence is  placed  in  very  early  regions.  To  such  places,  however,  there 
remains  the  possibility  of  curing  the  raisins  in  partial  shade,  as  is  done 
in  Chile,  thus  producing  raisins  of  an  entirely  different  type  from  the 
Malaga  or  California  product. 

Winds,  Injurious  or  Beneficial. — In  the  California  raisin  districts  hot, 
clec'crical  winds  are  much  feared  in  the  months  of  June  and  July,  or 
before  the  grapes  have  begun  to  ripen.  In  the  San  Joaquin  valley 
these  winds  come  from  the  northwest  and  sweep  down  over  the  vines, 
often  scorching  the  leaves  and  frequently  drying  the  berries  on  the 
exposed  side.  In  the  course  of  a  few  days  the  berries  dry  up  entirely, 
and  the  whole  bunch  is  lost.  These  drying  winds  are  not  peculiar  to 
any  certain  part  of  California,  but  occur  from  time  to  time  in  every 
raisin  district  on  the  coast,  in  the  south  as  well  as  in  the  center,  on  the 
coast  as  well  as  inland.  The  remedy  is  to  grow  the  vines  low  and  to 
keep  the  berries  well  covered.  The  planting  of  windbreaks  will  also 
modify  these  winds,  and  in  places  .where  they  formerly  were  common 
they  have  now  entirely  ceased  or  become  so  modified  that  they  cause 
no  injury  to  the  grapes,  but  prove  even  beneficial  on  account  of  the 
quicker  and  better  maturing  of  the  fruit.  In  certain  districts,  espe- 
cially in  San  Bernardino  and  in  Orange,  some  very  drying  winds  are 
experienced  late  in  the  season, — in  September  and  October.  For  the 
raisin-growers  these  winds  are  a  blessing.  They  quickly  dry  the 
exposed  grapes,  which  have  been  retarded  in  drying,  or  perhaps  even 
injured  by  a  previous  shower  of  rain  or  by  continued  heavy  dews. 
These  winds  are  undoubtedly  desert  winds,  and  similar  to  the  Terral 
of  Malaga,  which,  sweeping  over  the  inland  plains  of  La  Mancha, 
reach  the  coast  vineyards  and  quickly  mature  the  grapes.  In  Malaga 
there  is  also  a  moist  southern  wind,  the  Levante,  which  retards  the 
ripening  and  the  curing  of  the  grapes,  and  which  must  be  considered 
as  our  southwesterly  fall  winds,  which,  saturated  with  moisture,  swell 

*  Whenever  the  temperature  is  referred  to  it  means  the  degree  of  heat  (Fahren- 
it)  in  the  shade,  and  not  in  the  sun  except  when  so  expressly  stated. 


66  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

the  overdried  raisins  as  well  as  prevent  the  yet  green  grapes  from  dry- 
ing. They  are  precursors  of  the  rainy  season,  and  warn  the  grower  to 
prepare  his  dryer  if  he  possess  one.  In  Greece  and  Smyrna  such 
hot  or  moist  winds  are  also  known  and  feared,  and  cause  at  times  much 
damage  in  one  way  or  another.  We  might  here  also  mention  the  cold 
"northers"  which  are  common  in  the  California  raisin  districts  in 
springtime,  and  which  sometimes  both  cause  the  young  shoots  to 
break  off  from  the  old  wood  and  make  it  easy  for  the  mildew  to  attack 
the  flowers  or  the  young  berries  of  the  vines.  Against  these  north- 
west winds  we  have  two  remedies,  summer  pruning  and  sulphuring, 
which,  if  applied  in  time,  are  both  quite  effective. 

Fog  sand  Moisture  in  the  Air. — It  is  certain  that  the  air  in  the  Cali- 
fornia raisin  districts  is  much  drier  than  that  of  the  Spanish  or  Medi- 
terranean districts  generally.  The  night  air  is,  in  these  districts, 
loaded  with  moisture,  and  dew  is  heavy  and  frequent,  even  in  the 
middle  of  the  summer.  The  air  in  Malaga  and  Smyrna  feels  quite 
moist,  and  without  this  moisture  in  the  air  the  vines  would  grow  less 
and  require  irrigation.  In  these  places  the  raisin  grapes  grow  on  the 
steep  hillsides  without  irrigation,  but  in  California  this  could  not  be 
done  anywhere  except  in  El  Cajon  or  in  other  parts  of  the  San  Diego 
district,  where  the  air  is  considerably  moister  than  elsewhere.  This 
increased  moisture  is  partly  caused  by  the  increased  rainfall  in  these 
districts,  and  partly  by  their  nearness  to  the  sea  and  fogs.  This  mois- 
ture in  the  air  will,  when  other  conditions  are  equal,  greatly  benefit 
the  grapes,  causing  them  to  grow  larger,  and  the  thickness  of  the  skin 
is  materially  diminished.  Combined  with  this  moisture  in  the  air,  fogs 
are  injurious  or  indifferent.  There  is  always  a  great  difference  between 
warm  fogs  and  cold  fogs,  and  now  I  speak  principally  of  fogs  from  the 
ocean.  Warm  fogs  are  not  particularly  injurious  to  the  grapes,  gener- 
ally indifferent  and  sometimes  even  considerable  of  a  benefit  to  the 
proper  development  of  the  grapes.  In  Malaga,  San  Diego  and  in 
Chile  the  Muscat  grapes  grow  and  thrive  actually  within  the  reach  of 
the  spray  of  the  waves,  and  fogs  are  there  not  uncommon,  but  they 
are  warm.  It  would  seem  that  such  a  climate  would  cause  mildew  or 
oidium,  but  I  cannot  find  that  these  fungi  are  particularly  frequent  in 
San  Diego  county,  while  in  Malaga  they  are  but  little  more  common 
than  in  the  inland  districts  of  our  State.  But  as  we  go  north  the  cold 
fogs  become  more  common,  and  the  vines  thrive  less  under  their  influ- 
ence. North  of  Los  Angeles  county  the  Muscat  vines  do  not  enjoy  the 
coast  air,  while  even  in  Orange  county  the  interior  vineyards  are 
preferred  to  those  closer  to  the  coast.  But  anywhere,  even  in  the  best 
situated  districts,  protection  from  the  direct  influence  of  the  sea  fogs  is 
appreciated,  and  the  best  localities  are  those  in  which  low  hills  afford 
this  protection  by  modifying  and  increasing  the  temperature  of  the  fog 
or  sea  air. 

In  Central,  and  in  the  larger  part  of  Southern,  California,  the  inland 
valleys  are  the  most  successful  raisin-producing  districts,  while  even 
in  San  Diego  county,  where  the  Muscats  seem  to  thrive  at  the  very 
seashore,  the  interior  valleys  alone  afford  the  necessary  heat  and  dry 
air  for  curing  the  grapes  and  transforming  them  into  raisins.  Accord- 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  67 

ing  to  Consul  G.  H.  Heap  of  Constantinople,  the  positions  preferred 
for  vineyards  in  Turkey  are  the  slopes  of  elevated  and  sheltered  undu- 
lating lands,  or  on  the  sunny  hills  that  do  not  lie  too  near  the  coast, 
or  are  naturally  protected  from  the  cold  winds  and  fogs  of  the  sea. 
The  Island  of  Cos  or  Zea  is  called  the  paradise  of  the  Sultana  grape, 
because  Nature  has  given  the  cultivable  land  there  the  best  possible 
protection  from  the  direct  influence  of  the  fogs.  In  Malaga,  according 
to  Consul  Marston,  eighty  per  cent  of  the  vineyards  are  situated  on  the 
hills  and  inland,  ten  per  cent  on  the  valley  lands  or  plains,  and  ten  per 
cent  on  the  coast.  With  the  exception  of  some  of  the  San  Diego 
vineyards,  California  cannot  show  any  raisin  vineyards  as  close  to  the 
coast  as  those  found  in  Malaga.  The  main  HI  Cajon  vineyards  are 
from  ten  to  fifteen  miles  inland,  while  the  former  Santa  Ana  vineyards 
were  situated  from  eight  to  twelve  miles  from  the  coast.  The  San 
Bernardino  raisin  vineyards  are  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles  inland, 
while  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley  the  raisin  districts  are  more  than  a 
hundred  miles  from  the  coast,  while  the  sea  wind,  before  it  reaches  any 
of  the  vines,  has  been  modified  by  passing  over  from  two  to  three 
hundred  miles  of  dry  country. 

Ideal  Conditions  of  Climate. — There  remains  only  to  draw  some  con- 
clusions from  the  above  facts.  We  are  often  asked  what  are  the  ideal 
conditions,  as  far  as  climate  is  concerned,  for  the  proper  development 
of  the  raisin  grape,  and  for  the  proper  curing  of  the  raisins.  Could  we 
select  such  an  ideal  spot,  where  all  the  requirements  for  the  raisin 
industry  could  be  found  in  their  highest  perfection,  with  as  few  of  the 
drawbacks  as  possible,  our  choice  would  be  as  follows:  A  moderately 
dry  air,  a  frostless  spring,  a  rainy  winter  and  a  rainless  autumn.  The 
temperature  in  the  summer  should  vary  between  ninety  and  one  hun- 
dred degrees,  the  fall  months  should  now  and  then  be  visited  by 
drying  winds,  while  the  winter  frosts  should  be  heavy  and  regular,  but 
not  below  twelve  degrees.  Some  have  suggested  that  absolute  freedom 
from  any  rain  would  be  very  desirable,  as  then  no  interference  would 
be  experienced  with  the  cultivation  of  the  grapes,  but  I  doubt  if  the  soil 
in  cuch  districts  would  not  be  rapidly  exhausted  through  the  want  of 
weeds,  the  plowing  under  of  which  enriches  the  ground  and  enables  it 
better  to  preserve  the  moisture  provided  for  it  by  irrigation. 

SOILS. 

General  Remarks. — No  one  certain  variety  of  soil  can  be  said  to  be 
the  best  for  raisin  purposes,  and  both  in  different  countries,  as  well  as 
in  the  same  district,  various  varieties  of  soils  are  valued  equally. 
Every  raisin  district  has,  however,  its  favorite  soil,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  have  some  peculiar  advantages  for  the  raisin  grapes,  but 
upon  closer  investigation  we  generally  find  other  varieties  of  soils 
which  are  not  inferior.  Growers  who  have  succeeded  with  raisin 
grapes  on  one  variety  of  soil  are  only  too  apt  to  consider  this  kind 
preferable  to  any  other.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  California, 
where  soils  vary  so  much  and  where  in  some  districts  it  is  difficult  to 
find  forty  acres  with  a  uniform  soil.  Whether  the  soil  is  black,  red 


68  THE  RAISIN  INDUSTRY. 

or  gray,  it  makes  but  very  little  difference,  as  long  as  it  is  rich  and 
susceptible  of  the  highest  state  of  cultivation  and  has  the  faculty  of 
retaining  moisture.  The  deeper  and  richer  the  soil  the  better  the 
Muscatel  grape  will  thrive  and  produce,  and  as  such  soils  are  most 
generally  found  along  the  banks  of  creeks  and  rivers,  or  in  their 
bottoms  and  sinks,  we  might  conclude  that  in  such  localities  the  best 
soils  for  the  Muscat  grape  may  be  found.  Other  varieties  of  raisin 
grapes,  such  as  the  Malaga  (California)  and  the  Sultana,  do  well  in  less 
rich  soil;  indeed,  they  bear  profitably  in  places  where  the  Muscat 
would  be  a  failure.  It  is  therefore  important  for  every  vineyardist 
to  carefully  select  his  soil  and  then  plant  on  it  the  proper  variety  of 
vine. 

Malaga. — The  soils  of  Malaga  are  of  various  kinds.  The  best  is  a 
reddish  loam  containing  much  gravel,  both  coarse  and  fine.  This  soil 
is  very  stiff  and  hard,  and  when  dry  is  as  solid  as  a  brick.  The  red 
color  is  derived  from  oxide  of  iron  or  other  iron  compounds,  which 
many  of  the  best  vineyardists  consider  a  most  desirable  element  in  any 
raisin  soil.  The  upland  vineyards,  or  those  on  the  slope  of  the  hills, 
contain  soils  of  decomposed  clay  and  slate  mixed  with  more  or  less 
gravel  and  sand.  The  Dehesa  lands  contain  alluvial  deposits  of  a  black 
or  gray  color. 

Valencia  and  Denia. — In  this  district  we  find  soils  of  many  different 

'  grades  and  colors.  The  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  are  considered  as 
producing  the  finest  flavored  raisins,  and  those  having  the  best  keeping 
qualities,  while  the  rich,  loamy  soils  of  the  valleys  produce  raisins  of 
inferior  flavor  and  keeping  qualities,  but  of  larger  size  and  more  per 
acre.  For  economical  reasons,  the  latter  soils  are  preferred,  as  they 
alone  can  be  irrigated  and  made  to  produce  large  crops.  Some  -of  the 
best  vineyards  in  this  district  contain  a  gray,  ashy  soil,  quite  similar  to 
the  white  ash  of  the  Kings  river  lands,  while  others  are  growing  on  a 
red  clayey  loam  similar  to  the  California  red  soil. 

(/•  Smyrna. — The  raisin-grapes  of  Smyrna  in  Asia  Minor  are  almost 
exclusively  grown  on  a  white  limestone  soil,  which  consists  of  decom- 
posed white  rocks  mixed  with  a  stiff  ocher-colored  loam.  This  soil  is 
so  rocky  that  it  must  first  be  cleared,  and  the  large  rocks  are  carried 
away  and  used  for  boundary  walls.  This  is  the  soil  in  the  coast 
districts.  In  the  interior  the  Sultana  vines,  as  well  as  the  Muscats, 
are  replaced  by  fig  orchards  and  other  trees  which  delight  in  sandy 
soil, — too  sandy  to  produce  profitable  raisin  crops. 

V  Zante. — The  soils  of  Zante,  the  home  of  the  Currant  grape,  are  of 
various  kinds.  The  heavy  marl  df  the  plains,  which  contains  a  large 
percentage  of  gypsum  or  sulphate  of  lime,  is  considered  the  best; 
indeed  the  gypsum  is  by  many  considered  indispensable,  or  at  least 
highly  beneficial,  to  the  above  variety  of  grape.  Other  soils  are  red 
clay,  gray  marl  and  gravelly  loam,  all  containing  an  abundance  of 
lime.  The  Currant  grape  grows  well  and  produces  well  on  all  these 
different  soils,  but  does  the  best  on  the  gypsum  soil,  which  is  there- 
fore the  most  valued.  On  other  soils  the  bunches  are  less  solid,  and 
the  quantity  of  grapes  produced  is  somewhat  less,  while  their  quality 
is  inferior. 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  69 

Chile. — The  Huasco  grape  grows  in  the  valley  of  Huasco,  on  the 
coast  of  Chile,  in  a  soil  that  is  very  light  and  red,  containing  a  great 
quantity  of  sand.  While  very  light  in  weight,  this  soil  is  said  to  be 
very  rich  in  plant  food,  and  yields  good  crops. 

Fresno. — The  Fresno  soils  are  of  several  kinds,  but  the  three  prin- 
cipal varieties  are  red  or  chocolate-colored  loam,  white  or  gray  ashy 
soil,  and  a  light,  very  sandy,  loam.  To  this  may  be  added  the  deeper 
gray  bottom  soils  or  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Kings  river.  Bach  one 
of  these  varieties  have  different  grades  more  or  less  suitable  to  the 
Muscatel  grape.  The  best  grades  of  each  are  equally  valuable,  while 
again  the  poorer  grades  are  not  to  be  recommended.  The  deep  choco- 
late-colored loam  is  by  many  preferred,  and  the  largest  and  most 
successful  raisin  vineyards  are  now  located  on  this  soil.  But  even  in 
the  best  districts  the  soil  varies  to  such  an  extent,  that  while  one 
twenty-acre  field  will  yield  250  boxes  of  raisins  to  the  acre,  the  adjoin- 
ing field,  with  only  a  slight  change  in  the  soil,  will  yield  only  seventy- 
five  boxes  to  the  acre.  The  best  grades  of  the  white  ashy  soil  are  also 
very  good,  and  almost  identical  with  the  gray  bottom-land  deposits  of 
Kings  river.  The  light  sandy  soil  should  be  avoided  for  Muscat 
grapes,  but  may  do  for  Malaga  and  Sultanas,  especially  if  judiciously 
fertilized. 

Other  Soils  in  San  Joaquin  Valley. — In  Merced  the  best  soil  is  heavy 
chocolate-colored  loam,  in  places  redder,  in  others  darker,  almost 
blackish.  It  is  generally  mixed  with  some  gravel.  As  a  rule,  all  the 
red  soil  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley  is  of  the  same  characteristics,  and 
well  suited  to  the  Muscat  grape,  provided  the  ground  is  sufficiently 
level.  In  Tulare  county  the  proper  soil  for  the  Muscat  is  found  to 
be  the  bottom  lands  of  Kings  and  Kaweah  rivers,  as  well  as  the 
deposits  of  the  smaller  creeks.  This  variety  of  gray  alluvial  loam  is 
exceedingly  fertile,  and  there  is  none  superior  for  the  Muscat  grape. 
But  an  admixture  of  alkali  often  spoils  soils  which  otherwise  would 
be  considered  the  very  best.  A  similar  soil  is  found  in  Kern  county, 
especially  near  Kern  L,ake,  and  which  must  be  rated  among  the  best 
in  the  State,  its  color  being  a  deep-  bluish  gray.  The  vineyards  of 
Yolo  and  Solano  counties  are  located  on  a  very  similar  soil,  rich  in 
humus,  lime  and  phosphates,  but  more  yellowish  or  pale  chocolate 
colored. 

Orange  County. — A  similar  rich  alluvial  deposit  is  found  in  Orange 
county  in  the  fertile  district  known  as  Santa  Ana  valley.  The  soil 
around  Anaheim,  Santa  Ana,  Orange  and  Tustin  consists  of  a  more 
or  less  dark  alluvial  loam  of  unsurpassed  fertility,  and  especially 
adapted  to  the  Muscat  grape.  It  varies  as  to  the  percentage  of  sand 
and  gravel.  The  sandiest  soil  in  this  district,  while  less  rich,  brings 
the  earliest  grapes,  which  come  to  perfect  ripeness  several  weeks  before 
those  grown  on  the  heavier  soils,  but  the  latter  produce  the  best  raisins. 

Redlands  and  Riverside. — The  Redlands  soil  of  the  mesa  lands  is 
reddish,  rather  darker  than  the  same  quality  of  soil  in  Riverside  and 
Fresno.  It  is  mixed  with  sand  and  gravel,  and  partakes  strongly  of 
the  nature  of  the  red  or  chocolate-colored  loams  of  the  State.  The 
L,ugonia  bottom  soil  consists  of  a  very  sandy  loam,  on  which  the 


70  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

Muscat  grape  has  proved  a  failure.  The  best  Riverside  soil  is  red  or 
chocolate-colored  sandy  loam,  so  often  spoken  of.  Towards  Rincon 
we  find  alluvial  bottom  soils  producing  grapes  of  superb  quality  and 
size.  The  soil  of  the  San  Bernardino  district  resemble  the  red  Fresno 
soils,  while  the  white  ashy  soil  is  not  found  there. 

El  Cajon. — The  El  Cajon  valley  soils  are  of  three  or  more  kinds: 
Rich  red  clay  mixed  with  gravel,  with  the  color  changing  from  lighter 
chocolate  to  deeper  reddish.  This  is  a  very  desirable  soil, — a  steel  gray 
or  slate  gray  adobe  with  much  gravel  of  a  coarse  nature;  a  black  adobe 
with  some  gravel;  an  alluvial  sandy  loam  consisting  of  decomposed 
granite  mixed  with  much  vegetable  matter  and  humus.  The  El  Cajon 
soils,  while  sandy  and  gravelly,  produce  exceedingly  sweet  and  highly 
flavored  grapes  but  comparatively  small  crops. 

Subsoils. — The  subsoil  in  a  raisin  vineyard  is  of  great  importance. 
Properly  irrigated  soils,  if  they  are  sufficiently  rich,  need  not  neces- 
sarily be  very  deep,  as  the  raisin  grapes,  especially  the  Muscat,  seldom 
extend  deeper  than  eight  feet  below  the  surface.  Even  from  four  to 
five  feet  of  rich  soil  may  be  considered  as  enough  in  irrigated  vine- 
yards, where  the  water  is  abundant.  In  poorer  soils,  or  in  districts 
with  less  irrigation,  the  roots  of  the  vines  penetrate  much  deeper,  and 
the  importance  of  the  subsoil  in  such  cases  is  apparent.  Any  rich 
subsoil  will  serve  our  purpose.  It  is  always  best  to  thoroughly  inves- 
tigate the  subsoil  before  the  vineyard  is  planted,  and  in  doing  this  the 
following  points  must  be  considered:  The  subsoil  should  be  as  rich  as 
possible,  and  there  should,  in  no  instance,  be  less  than  four  feet  of  rich 
top  soil.  Very  sandy  soil  or  pure  sand  is  not  a  proper  subsoil  for  raisin 
grapes.  Such  soil  will  cause  the  top  soil  to  dry  too  quickly  after 
each  irrigation,  and  will  cause  the  top  soil  to  leach  out,  while  it  besides 
gives  no  nourishment  to  the  vines.  Hardpan  is  not  desirable,  not  even 
admissible,  except  in  places  *  that  are  or  will  become  subirrigated. 
Alkali  or  salty  subsoils  will  soon  spoil  the  quality  of  even  the  best  top 
soil.  This  especially  is  the  case  in  irrigated  districts,  where  the  salts 
of  the  subsoil  are  carried  to  the  top  by  the  rising  waters  or  by  the 
continued  irrigation.  Hardpan  which  readily  dissolves  when  wet  is 
not  injurious. 

Hardpan  Soils. — While  I  have  alluded  to  them  already,  a  few  more 
remarks  on  these  soils  are  here  in  place.  The  hardpan  consists  of  a 
stratum  of  hard  soil  or  hard  rocky  substance  below  the  top  soil.  The 
depth  at  which  the  hardpan  is  found  varies.  In  places  where  it  is 
situated  eight  or  ten  feet  below  the  top  surface  it  does  but  very  little 
harm,  and  may  even  prove  beneficial  in  localities  where  water  for  irriga- 
tion is  scarce,  as  it  checks  too  rapid  drainage.  If  the  hardpan  is 
situated  closer  to  the  top  soil,  it  may  seriously  interfere  with  the 
vines,  and  if  too  close,  or  say  within  two  or  three  feet  from  the  top, 
it  makes  such  soils  entirely  unfit  for  raisin  grapes.  If  situated 
somewhat  lower  down,  say  from  four  to  six  feet,  the  hardpan  does  no 
great  harm  in  subirrigated  districts,  while,  in  places  where  irriga- 
tion is  not  used,  it  leaves  the  top  soil  too  shallow  and  too  dry.  But 
allowance  must  always  be  made  as  to  the  nature  of  the  hardpan.  Some 
varieties  of  hardpan  are  so  hard  that  they  can  best  be  compared  to 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  71 

regular  stratified  rocks,  impenetrable  to  the  roots  of  the  vines,  and 
impervious  to  water.  Other  hardpans  again  are  softer,  and  allow  the 
vine  roots  to  penetrate  more  or  less  readily,  while  some  again  are  so 
soft  that  they  dissolve  in  water  and  make  good  soil  for  the  vines.  If 
the  hardpan  is  very  shallow,  it  may  pay  to  blast  holes  through  it,  in 
order  to  allow  the  roots  of  the  vines  to  penetrate  to  lower  soils.  But 
if  the  hardpan  is  thick  and  hard,  and  if  there  is  no  immediate  pros- 
pect of  subirrigation,  it  is  better  to  use  such  land  for  some  other  pur- 
pose than  for  raisin-vines,  which  will  only  pay  properly  if  grown 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  and  on  the  best  and  deepest 
soils. 

As  to  the  nature  of  the  hardpan,  a  few  remarks  may  prove  of  interest 
The  hardpan  can  best  be  compared  to  a  stalactite  formation  similar  to 
those  found  in  various  caves.  It  has  been  formed  very  much  in  the 
same  way  as  they  were.  In  caves  the  rainwater,  that  seeps  down 
from  the  top  surface,  dissolves  various  substances,  especially  carbonates 
(and  silicates  even)  which  again  are  deposited  on  the  underside  of  the 
cave  roof.  This  precipitation  of  hard  material  is  caused  both  by  evapo- 
ration of  the  water,  as  well  as  by  attraction  and  adhesion.  Such  redep- 
osition  of  dissolved  minerals  is  seen  for  instance  if  solutions  of  salt 
in  water  are  passed  through  tasteless  and  clean  sand.  The  water  will 
come  through  sweet  and  tasteless,  the  salt  having  adhered  to  the 
surface  of  the  sand  grains.  Similarly,  if  a  hole  is  dug  near  the  sea- 
shore in  the  sand,  the  salt  water  will  seep  through,  and  form  a  well  of 
more  or  less  tasteless  drinking  water.  In  the  formation  of  hardpan, 
this  is  exactly  what  has  taken  place.  The  rainwater  has  dissolved 
certain  elements,  such  as  carbonates  of  lime,  or  carbonates  of  sodium 
and  various  other  salts,  and  in  its  way  through  the  lower  strata  of  the 
soil  these  dissolved  elements  have  again  been  taken  up  by  the  sand 
and  cemented  it  together.  Thus  it  is  explained  why  hardpan  upon 
examination  is  so  often  found  to  resemble  sand  or  sandstone:  the 
lower  sandy  strata  of  the  soil  have  been  especially  effective  in  causing 
the  lime  in  the  water  to  adhere  to  the  numerous  surfaces  of  every 
individual  grain  of  sand.  In  hog-wallow  districts  the  hardpan  is 
found  principally  between  the  individual  hog-wallows,  but  rarely  in 
or  under  them.  The  rainwater  has  here  carried  the  minerals  in  the 
soil  to  the  deeper  places  betweeen  the  hog-wallows,  in  which  it  has 
accumulated  to  a  greater  extent  than  anywhere  else,  and  thus  formed 
a  heavier  hardpan.  In  flooding  the  hog-wallows,  the  top  of  every 
hog- wallow  is  seen  to  settle  and  fall  in,  there  being  no  hardpan  below 
it,  if  the  sides  of  the  hog-wallow  are  steep.  Where  the  hardpan  con- 
sists principally  of  lime  compounds,  its  chemical  composition  is  not 
detrimental  to  the  vines.  But  where  the  hardpan  is  cemented  by 
alkalies  more  or  less  soluble  in  water,  these  deleterious  substances  will 
dissolve  and  rise  to  the  surface  to  the  great  detriment  or  even  to  the 
total  destruction  of  the  vineyard. 

Comparative  Value  of  Soils. — The  river  bottom  soils,  or  soils  formed 
by  the  deposit  of  creeks,  are  with  few  exceptions  rich  and  deep,  and 
contain  in  abundance  all  the  elements  necessary  to  produce  a  superior 
Muscat  grape.  Such  soils  are,  however,  often  injured  by  subsoils 


72  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

containing  mineral  deposits,  which  will  injure  the  vines,  or  by  hard- 
pans,  which  will  cause  the  soil  to  dry  out.  Poor  soils  will  not  prove 
profitable,  and  rather  than  plant  vines  on  such  soils  it  would  be  better 
to  plant  no  vines  at  all.  The  rich  soils  are  not  only  the  heaviest  pro- 
ducers, but  the  vines  grown  on  them  are  stronger  and  healthier  and  in 
every  way  better  able  to  resist  the  attacks  of  insects  and  fungi  and  the 
ravages  of  other  inexplicable  diseases.  But  regardless  of  these 
advantages  the  various  soils  leave  their  effects  on  the  grapes,  some  of 
them  producing  sweet  and  very  keeping  raisins,  while  others  cause 
large  berries  and  bunches,  which  bring  the  highest  market  price. 
Thus  the  lighter  and  drier  soils  produce  richer  flavored  and  sweeter 
raisins  than  the  wet  and  rich  soils,  which  again  produce  the  largest  and 
handsomest  grapes.  On  the  latter  soils  the  raisins  when  cured  will  be 
found  to  be  dark  and  covered  with  a  heavy  bloom,  while  the  raisins 
from  the  sandier  or  gravelly  soils  are  lighter  in  color  and  with  less  pro- 
nounced bloom.  The  keeping  quality  of  the  raisins  from  gravelly 
soils  is  well  known.  In  California  the  keeping  quality  of  the  raisins  is 
seldom  inquired  into,  as  our  raisins  keep  remarkably  well  and  are  in 
this  respect  superior  to  those  grown  in  Spain.  This  may  be  from  the 
effect  of  our  drier  climate  more  than  from  any  certain  quality  in  our 
soils. 

As  a  rule  it  may  be  said  that  poor  soil  causes  the  raisins  to  mature 
earlier  than  the  rich,  heavy  loams,  and  on  this  account  the  latter  are 
to  be  greatly  preferred,  as  the  earliest  raisins  in  any  district  are  never 
as  good  as  the  bulk  of  the  crop,  and  are  in  demand  rather  as  a  curiosity, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  an  early  market,  than  through  any 
Superior  qualities.  In  some  districts  there  is  such  a  great  difference 
in  the  time  of  ripening  upon  the  various  soils  that  the  grapes  grown 
on  the  earliest  soils  are  used  only  as  table  grapes  fresh.  In  planting 
a  raisin  vineyard,  the  future  profits  depend  upon  the  choice  of  land, 
and  it  is  far  better  to  pay  a  high  price  for  the  best  land  than  to  take 
the  inferior  land  as  a  gift.  Few  of  those  who  now  enter  upon  raisin 
culture  take  the  proper  care  in  selecting  the  land,  neither  do  they 
sufficiently,  if  at  all,  realize  the  advantages  of  the  rich  soil,  nor  the 
disadvantages  of  the  poor  land. 

Alkali  Soils. — While  nothing  but  first-class  land  is  to  be  recom- 
mended for  raisin  vineyards,  and  alkali  lands  are  of  all  soils  those 
least  suitable  for  our  purpose,  still  a  consideration  of  these  lands  will 
interest  many  raisin-grape  growers.  The  best  lands  for  raisin  purposes 
in  California  are  often  contiguous  to  alkali  lands,  or  to  land  containing 
more  or  less  traces  of  alkali.  A  vineyard  on  the  best  soil  contains 
often  spots  charged  with  alkali,  and  it  may  be  inconvenient  for  the 
grower  to  allow  these  spots  to  lie  idle,  and  he  would  prefer  to  fill  them 
up  with  vines.  The  first  work  must  then  be  tt>  get  rid  of  the  alkali  or 
reduce  it  to  such  an  extent  that  it  will  not  prove  injurious.  The  gen- 
eral alkali  lands  are  classed  in  three  kinds,  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  alkali. 

ist.  Alkali  salts,  such  as  carbonates  and  borates.  These  are  greatly 
detrimental  to  the  vines,  and  no  vines  could  be  expected  to  do  well  in 
such  soils,  as  even  the  smallest  percentage  of  this  alkali  is  injurious 


THE)    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  73 

or  even  ruinous  to  the  crop.  In  clayey  soils  these  alkalies  cause  the 
clay  to  harden  in  such  a  way  that  no  good  tilth  can  be  obtained.  The 
land  may  be  plowed  ever  so  much,  it  will  only  turn  up  in  chunks  and 
never  become  properly  pulverized.  These  true  alkali  salts  consist 
principally  of  carbonate  of  sodium  (sal-soda)  or  of  carbonate  of  potassium 
(saleratus).  Remedies:  Gypsum,  land-plaster  or  leaching  with  water. 

2d.  A  second  class  of  alkalies  are  the  sulphates  and  chlorides,  all 
soluble  in  water.  Such  salts  are:  Magnesium  chloride  (bittern), 
magnesium  sulphate  (Epsom  salt),  calcium  chloride,  etc.  These 
salts,  when  not  present  in  too  large  quantities,  are  easily  counteracted 
by  lime. 

3d.  A  third  class  of  alkalies  is  composed  of  neutral  salts,  such  as 
chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  sulphate  of  sodium  (Glauber  salt), 
sulphate  of  potassium,  all  soluble  in  water,  but  not  convertible  into 
less  injurious  substances  by  lime  or  gypsum.  These  salts  do  not  bake 
the  soil,  but  rather  contribute  towards  keeping  it  loose  and  mellow. 

The  remedies  which  are  practical  and  not  too  expensive  may  be 
divided  into  several  classes,  which,  if  used  in  combination,  may  prove 
effective,  while  each  one  of  them  used  separately  would  fail. 

i  st.  Leaching  with  water.  All  soluble  salts  may  be  leached  with 
water.  The  alkali  land  should  be  checked  and  so  ditched  that  the 
water  from  each  check  can  be  drained  into  a  waste  ditch.  But,  besides 
these  waste  ditches,  drain  ditches  should  be  made  for  the  purpose  of 
draining  off  the  water,  say  to  a  depth  of  four  feet  below  the  surface. 
The  'modus  operandi  consists  in  first  flooding  the  soil,  and  while  the 
check  is  yet  full  the  floodgates  are  opened  and  the  water  drawn  off  into 
the  waste  ditch,  when  the  water  will  carry  off  the  salts  which  have 
been  dissolved  in  it.  A  second  or  third  flooding  should  be  allowed  to 
settle  in  the  soil  and  be  drained  off  below  into  the  drain  ditches.  The 
drawback  to  common  leaching  is  that  under  certain  circumstances  the 
water  may  deposit  its  alkali  in  lower  strata,  especially  if  they  are  sandy, 
and  there  form  hardpan  or  alkali  accumulations.  A  much  better 
method  is  under-drainage  by  means  of  pipes  or  gravel  drains  con- 
structed all  through  the  tract  at  certain  regular  distances.  This  under- 
drainage,  if  properly  constructed  under  conditions  favorable  for  its 
perfect  working,  is  by  far  the  best  method  of  freeing  alkali  soils  from 
their  superfluous  salts.  To  what  extent  this  system  is  practical  depends 
upon  circumstances.  To  reclaim  large  districts  by  this  method  may 
not  prove  economical  as  long  as  good  land  is  plentiful  and  cheap,  but 
where  smaller  alkali  tracts  are  surrounded  by  soil,  and  where  it  is  of 
importance  to  get  a  uniform  plantation,  under-drainage  by  pipes  or 
common  drains  is  both  the  surest  and  most  practical  solution  of  the 
alkali  problem.  Under-drainage  is  strongly  recommended  by  Prof.  E.  W. 
Hilgard,  who  has  repeatedly  pointed  out  its  value,  and  who  has  called 
the  author's  special  attention  to  this  as  yet  little  understood  remedy. 

2d.  Deep  and  constant  plowing.  Deep  and  frequent  plowing  acts  in 
various  ways.  By  being  mixed  with  a  larger  quantity  of  soil,  the 
alkali  is  diluted  sufficiently  to  not  cause  any  serious  injury  to  the  crops, 
the  damage  generally  being  done  near  the  surface.  Constant  plowing 
also  prevents  evaporation,  which  carries  the  alkali  to  the  surface  and 


74  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

deposits  it  there.  This  method  can  only  be  successful  when  the  alkali 
salts  are  limited  in  quantity,  and  no  one  need  expect  to  be  able  to  rid 
badly  charged  lands  from  their  alkali  by  plowing  it  under. 

3d.  By  plowing  under  green  or  dry  crops.  If  grain  can  be  made  to 
grow  on  the  alkali  land  at  all  the  turning  under  of  it,  either  green  or 
dry,  will  in  course  of  time  greatly  reduce  the  alkali.  The  turned- 
under  stubble  or  straw  forms  in  decaying  an  acid,  which  in  many- 
instances  will  combine  with  and  counteract  the  effects  of  the  alkali. 
Similarly,  straw  stacks  spread  on  alkali  spots  and  plowed  under  will 
considerably  reduce  the  alkali.  But  manure  containing  ammonia  and 
other  salts  should  not  be  used,  as  it  will,  on  the  contrary,  only  increase 
the  alkali  by  adding  other  or  similar  salts  to  those  already  in  the  soil. 

4th.  Cropping.  If  water,  either  in  the  form  of  sufficient  rain  or  as 
irrigation  can  be  had,  alkali  lands  can  be  reclaimed  by  cropping.  It  is 
amply  proved  that  beets  and  carrots,  as  well  as  other  plants,  such  as 
salt-bush  (Chenopodium),  take  up  large  quantities  of  alkali  salts,  and 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years  render  alkali  soils  available  for  grain. 
Wheat  also  extracts  alkalies,  and  repeated  croppings  with  grain  will  in 
the  course  of  time  prepare  the  soil  for  vines  and  trees.  Bermuda  grass 
will  completely  remove  the  alkali  from  soils  to  the  depth  at  which  the 
roots  can  penetrate,  and  must  be  recommended  for  the  worst  places. 
Afterwards,  cropping  with  annual  crops  may  be  advisable  before  vines 
are  finally  planted  on  such  reclaimed  lands.  The  Australian  salt- 
bushes,  or  Chenopodium,  extract  alkalies,  and  are  besides  liked  by  stock. 
They  should  be  introduced  to  alkali  lands  and  take  the  place  of  the 
California  native  salt-bushes,  which  are  not  eaten  by  stock.  While 
being  real  desert  plants,  they  yet  require  some  moisture  in  the  soil,  but 
they  could  probably  be  grown  anywhere  on  the  alkali  lands  in  this 
State  where  the  rainfall  is  over  three  or  four  jnches. 

5th.  By  chemicals.  The  use  of  chemicals  of  various  kinds  in  coun- 
teracting the  alkali  is  not  resorted  to  by  our  farmers  as  it  should  be. 
The  principle  upon  which  chemicals  can  be  used  is  that  obnoxious 
or  greatly  injurious  alkalies  may  be  changed  into  less  obnoxious  and 
less  injurious  salts,  or  even  into  fertilizers.  The  most  available  of 
these  chemical  compounds  are  gypsum  (sulphate  of  lime)  and  lime 
(carbonate  of  lime).  When  the  alkali  consists  mainly  of  carbonates, 
such  as  carbonate  of  sodium  (sal-soda)  or  potassium  carbonate  (saler- 
atus),  in  other  words  of  the  class  which  we  have  designated  as  class 
number  one,  the  most  dangerous  and  worst  class  of  alkalies  to  combat, 
gypsum  may  be  used  as  an  antidote"  or  rather  as  a  means  to  convert 
these  alkalies  into  alkalies  of  the  second  class,  or  the  sulphates.  The 
principle  upon  which  this  is  done  is  to  displace  the  sulphate  in  the 
gypsurn  and  force  it  to  combine  with  the  alkali  (sodium  carbonate) 
and  form  sulphate  of  sodium  (Glauber  salt),  an  alkali  belonging  to  the 
third  class  of  alkalies,  and  which  is  twenty  times  less  injurious  to  vege- 
tation than  is  class  number  one.  The  change  is  made  on  the  follow- 
ing principle,  and  might  be  thus  illustrated:  To  the  alkali  in  the  soil 
(carbonate  of  sodium),  add  sulphate  of  lime.  As  soon  as  the  mixture 
is  made  with  sufficient  water,  a  change  will  take  place,  and  the  sub- 
stances (carbonate  of  sodium  and  sulphate  of  lime)  will  form  new 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  75 

compounds.  Thus  we  will  get,  out  of  those  two  substances,  two  new 
compounds,  viz.,  carbonate  of  lime  and  sulphate  of  sodium.  Of  these, 
carbonate  of  lime  is  not  injurious  to  vegetable  life,  and  sulphate  of 
sodium  (Glauber  salt)  is  only  injurious  when  present  in  large  quan- 
tities. The  carbonate  of  lime  is  not  soluble  in  water,  but  the  sulphate 
of  sodium  is,  and  can  consequently  be  eliminated  by  underdraining  or 
by  flooding,  as  we  have  previously  described. 

To  know  when  gypsum  can  be  used  is  not  necessarily  a  scientific 
matter.  Mix  some  of  the  alkali  in  a  tumbler  with  water,  and  allow 
the  mixture  to  settle.  In  another  tumbler  mix  some  gypsum  and 
water,  and  allow  it  to  settle.  Then  mix  the  two  clear  liquids,  which,  if 
gypsum  is  an  antidote  and  the  proper  thing  to  use,  will  be  turbid  or 
milky  through  the  chemical  combinations  which  take  place.  If  the 
water  remains  clear,  gypsum  will  not  prove  an  antidote  to  the  alkali 
under  consideration.  The  use  of  lime  is  based  very  much  on  the  same 
principle.  If  the  second  class  of  alkalies  are  present,  and  lime  is  added, 
the  changes  that  take  place  may  be  illustrated  as  follows:  Epsom  salt 
(magnesium  sulphate)  combined  with  calcium  carbonate,  will  form 
two  new  compounds,  viz. ,  gypsum  (calcium  sulphate)  and  magnesium 
carbonate,  both  of  which  substances  are  less  injurious  to  crops.  But,  as 
I  have  already  stated,  raisin-vines  prefer  soils  which  are  naturally  free 
from  alkali,  and  should  never  be  planted  on  soils  which  cannot  readily 
be  reclaimed.  Chemical  antidotes  may  do  where  the  alkali  occurs  in 
a  few  spots  mixed  in  among  tracts  of  good  soil,  but  where  the  whole 
field  must  be  reclaimed  some  other  crop  than  vines  had  better  be 
first  attempted.  There  is  too  much  good  and  suitable  soil  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  until  all  this  is  occupied  the  alkali  soils  had  better  be 
given  up  to  other  crops  than  vines. 

Fertilizing. — To  this  date  but  few  grape-growers  manure  their  soil. 
California  has  not  yet  been  engaged  in  the  raisin  business  twenty  years, 
and  her  vineyards  are  comparatively  virgin.  The  first  raisin  vineyards 
were  planted  on  the  deepest  and  richest  soil,  the  soil  which  would 
naturally  hold  out  the  longest,  but  the  croppings  of  a  raisin  vineyard 
are  enormous,  and  when  from  eigljt  to  ten  tons  of  green  grapes  have 
been  taken  from  the  soil  year  aftef  year,  it  is  but  natural  that  the  land 
should  become  gradually  exhausted.  In  Spain  it  is  considered  that 
even  the  richest  soils  require  manuring  after  ten  years  of  constant 
cropping  with  Muscats,  and  the  same  experience  is  likely  to  become 
ours  in  California.  So  far,  I  know  of  not  one  vineyard  which  has 
yielded  Muscat  grapes  for  ten  continuous  years  and  still  keeps  yield- 
ing as  much  as  formerly.  Yearly  the  crop  must  become  less,  and 
finally  will  not  be  large  enough  to  pay.  The  manuring  of  the  Mus- 
catel vines  is  fully  understood  in  Spain,  where  all  kinds  of  manures 
are  used.  When  home  manures  fail  in  supply,  the  Spaniards  use 
imported  fertilizers,  such  as  Mexican  phosphates,  etc.  This  fertilizer 
brings  in  Spain  sixty-five  dollars  per  ton,  and  is  brought  there  from 
our  very  doors, — the  Gulf  of  Lower  California.  It  could  be  laid  down 
here  for,  and  is  actually  sold  here  now  at,  forty  dollars  per  ton,  or  twenty- 
five  dollars  less  than  in  Spain;  still  to  my  knowledge  only  very  few 
raisin-growers  in  Fresno  use  it  for  their  vines.  In  one  year  one  of  these 


76  THE     RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

succeeded,  with  the  aid  of  this  phosphate,  in  raising  the  crop  of  an 
acre  of  Sultana  grapes  from  a  very  poor  yield  to  over  eight  tons. 
The  grapes  were  grown  on  a  piece  of  sandy  soil  of  the  kind  well  known 
to  Fresno  vine-growers,  and  which  is  generally  considered  as  less 
suited  to  raisins,  lacking  in  fact  in  more  than  one  of  the  necessary 
qualities  of  a  good  raisin  soil. 

It  is  certainly  a  wrong  policy  to  crop  the  soil  until  the  grape  crops 
begin  to  fail.  The  soil  will  then  be  so  exhausted  of  several  of  its  ingre- 
dients, that  it  will  take  the  most  scientific  treatment  to  bring  it  back 
again  to  what  it  was  formerly,  and  it  is  even  questionable  if  this  could 
be  done  in  a  way  that  would  prove  profitable.  Experience  in  Spain 
teaches  that  vineyards  which  formerly  used  to  yield  from  eight  to  ten 
tons  of  green  grapes  to  the  acre  now,  after  years  of  neglect,  only  yield 
two  tons  to  the  acre,  and  even  with  expensive  manuring  can  in  no 
way  be  brought  back  to  their  former  fertility.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
know  that  vineyards  which  have  been  fertilized  from  the  beginning 
have  for  fifty  years  been  kept  up  in  apparently  as  good  condition  as  at 
first;  it  is  accordingly  this  method  that  must  be  recommended.  The 
manure  or  fertilizer  must  be  varied  occasionally.  In  rotation,  phos- 
phates, bone  dust,  guano,  stable  manure,  sheep  manure,  lime  and 
plaster  of  Paris  or  gypsum  may  be  used,  but  it  is  best  to  have  every 
variety  of  soil  in  the  vineyard  analyzed,  and  to  apply  from  year  to 
year  that  kind  of  fertilizer  which  is  particularly  needed.  The  phos- 
phates are  those  which  will  first  give  out  in  our  California  soils. 
Phosphates  must  therefore  be  considered  as  the  best  fertilizers  we  can 
use,  but  the  quantity  to  be  used  must  always  be  determined  by  a 
practical  chemist.  Of  these  chemical  fertilizers,  it  is  dangerous  to  use 
too  much,  as  they  might  injure  the  vines,  and  from  fifty  to  a  few 
hundred  pounds  to  the  acre  may  in  some  instances  suffice  and  pro- 
duce better  crops  than  would  four  or  five  times  as  much.  But,  regard- 
less of  chemical  fertilizers,  the  cautious  raisin-grower  should  endeavor 
to  return  to  the  soil  as  much  as  he  possibly  can  out  of  the  wastes  of 
his  crop.  The  refuse  of  stems  and  berries,  which  are  wasted  at  the 
stemmer  and  in  the  packing-house,  should  not  be  burned,  as  is  gen- 
erally the  case,  but  returned  to  the  vineyard,  and  applied  one  year 
on  one  piece  of  ground,  and  another  year  on  some  other  piece.  If, 
however,  these  wastes  must  be  used  as  fuel  in  the  dryer,  etc.,  the 
ashes  should  be  carefully  collected  and  spread  over  the  soil,  and  kept 
dry  and  shaded  until  thus  used. 

Another  most  valuable  fertilizer  generally  wasted  is  the  trimmings. 
In  our  careless  California  farming,  these  trimmings  of  the  vines  are 
put  in  piles  on  the  roads,  outside  of  the  vineyards,  and  there  burned. 
Thus  the  ground  loses  the  most  powerful  soluble  salt,  which  would 
greatly  increase  the  yield  of  grapes  and  the 'profits  to  the  farmer. 
Where  the  vines  are  planted  far  enough  apart,  the  trimmings  may  be 
burned  between  the  rows  of  the  vines  without  injury  to  them,  but,  when 
the  vines  are  set  close,  there  is  no  other  way  than  to  carefully  collect 
the  ashes  and  spread  them  evenly  over  the  soil.  Some  vineyardists  use 
large  troughs  made  of  galvanized  iron  and  perforated  with  holes. 
These  vats  are  drawn  through  the  vineyard  by  a  team,  and  scatter 


THE     RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  77 

the  ashes  evenly  over  the  soil.  The  vats  may  be  so  constructed  that 
the  cuttings  are  burned  in  them  directly  as  they  are  being  pulled 
along,  thus  saving  much  labor  as  well  as  ashes.  Such  contrivances 
will  probably  only  prove  profitable  in  large  vineyards,  where  there  are 
long  rows  and  few  turnings  for  the  teams.  Even  the  stable  manure 
in  our  State  is  not  used  as  it  should  be.  It  is  hardly  possible  to 
understand  how  vineyardists  can  be  thoughtless  enough  to  haul  loads 
upon  loads  of  stable  manure  on  their  roads  or  in  holes  and  waste 
places,  while  their  vines  adjoining  are  suffering  from  the  want  of 
sufficient  nourishment.  In  the  irrigated  districts,  this  is  a  very  com- 
mon sight,  and  the  wet  places  on  the  road  are  often  deep  with  manure 
and  strongly  smelling  of  ammonia.  If  the  manure  had  been  placed 
around  the  vines,  the  increase  in  crops  would  probably  have  been 
sufficient  to  enable  the  owner  to  macadamize  or  otherwise  permanently 
fix  the  roads. 

IRRIGATION. 

Introductory  Notes. — The  irrigation  of  the  raisin  grapes  was,  for  sev- 
eral years,  considered  as  a  practice  entirely  peculiar  to  California,  but 
as  our  knowledge  extended  it  was  found  that,  far  from  being  anything 
at  all  new,  it  had  been  practiced  successfully  for  centuries  in  some  of 
the  Mediterranean  countries.  We  have  already  mentioned  how  irriga- 
tion is  customary  both  in  the  Valencia  and  Denia  districts,  as  well  as  in 
Greece.  It  is  evident  that  irrigation  there  is  only  limited  by  the  supply 
of  water,  and  that  there  is  no  question  about  its  usefulness.  As 
regards  the  methods  of  irrigation  in  these  foreign  countries,  we  beg 
to  refer  to  the  chapters  treating  of  these  countries.  Here  our  efforts 
shall  be  to  consider  irrigation  in  its  relation  to  the  following  points, 
which  are  of  more  general  interest  to  the  Californian  growers:  Neces- 
sity of  irrigating  the  raisin-vines ;  the  health  of  irrigated  vines ;  the 
bearing  quality  of  irrigated  vines ;  the  quality  of  the  irrigated  grape  ; 
supposed  unhealthiness  of  irrigated  vineyards;  irrigation  by  flooding; 
irrigation  by  furrowing;  subirrigation;  seepage;  drainage;  irrigation 
and  its  influence  on  the  soil.  s 

The  Necessity  of  Irrigating  the  Raisin-vines. — When  the  irrigation  of 
raisin  grapes  was  first  attempted  in  Fresno  and  Riverside,  hardly  any 
one  was  acquainted  with  or  knew  that  irrigation  had  ever  been  used 
for  such  a  purpose  before,  and  irrigation  was  considered  as  a  venture 
which  did  not  promise  well  for  the  future.  Later  on  it  was  found  that 
the  raisin  grape  really  would  grow  and  do  well  in  some  localities  with- 
out irrigation,  and  the  latter  practice  was  accordingly  condemned. 
To-day,  however,  the  practical  knowledge  of  irrigation  is  greater  and 
more  generally  distributed,  and  it  is  now  fully  understood  that  irriga- 
tion is  not  only  not  injurious,  but  beneficial  and  necessary  in  localities 
where  the  raisin-vine  will  not  grow  or  bear  sufficiently  without  it. 
The  questions  then  arose,  When  is  irrigation  necessary,  and  how 
much  irrigation  is  required  ?  The  first  object  in  raisin-growing  is  the 
profit*  a  secondary  object  is  how  to  so  treat  the  vines  that,  they  will 
last  as  long  as  possible.  To  attain  the  first  object,  we  must  raise  plenty 
of  grapes,  and  when  a  larger  quantity  of  good  raisin  grapes  can  be 


78  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

grown  with  irrigation  than  without  it,  irrigation  is  justifiable  and 
necessary.  In  Spain,  especially  in  the  Denia  district,  irrigation  of  the 
raisin  grapes  is  practiced  wherever  water  can  be  had,  and  the  same  is 
the  case  in  Greece  and  Italy. 

In  California  the  tendency  is  now  to  irrigate  wherever  water  can  be 
had,  and  wherever  it  is  profitable  to  procure  it.  In  Fresno,  Tulare  and 
Kern  counties,  raisin  grapes  could  not  be  grown  without  irrigation. 
These  same  conditions  are  also  found  in  San  Bernardino  county, 
while  in  L,os  Angeles  and  Orange  counties  all  the  best  vineyards  are 
irrigated,  and  only  occasionally  do  we  find  the  conditions  such  that 
irrigation  is  not  absolutely  necessary.  In  Northern  California,  raisin- 
vines  may  be  grown  without  irrigation,  but  the  latter  is  considered  of 
such  advantage  that  expensive  pumping  works  have  been  erected  in 
places  where  no  other  means  were  had  for  irrigating  the  vines.  In  San 
Diego  county,  especially  in  El  Cajon  and  Sweetwater  valleys,  irrigation 
is  not  absolutely  necessary,  in  fact  it  is  not  practiced  there  at  all, 
although  water  could  be  had,  but  as  a  consequence  the  crops  there  are 
not  as  large.  In  Smyrna,  in  Asia  Minor,  the  largest  raisin  center  in 
the  world,  the  raisin-vines  receive  no  irrigation,  but  the  unusually 
heavy  rainfall  of  this  section  makes  the  want  of  irrigation  less  felt. 
Of  course,  outside  of  the  raisin  districts  proper,  Muscatels  or  other 
raisin- vines  may  be  grown,  and  are  grown  to  good  advantage  without 
irrigation,  but  the  climate  in  those  places  is  generally  unsuited  to  the 
drying  of  the  grapes. 

Should  we  inquire  into  the  reasons  why  raisin  grapes  may  in  some 
localities  be  grown  and  actually  prove  profitable  without  irrigation,  we 
find  the  same  to  depend  not  alone  upon  the  rainfall  of  the  locality,  but 
principally  upon  such  other  circumstances  as  dew,  fog,  the  nature  of 
the  subsoil,  and  the  moisture  oi  the  air.  In  Smyrna  the  rainfall  of 
the  wet  season  is  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  inches  annually,  and 
greater  than  in  any  other  raisin  district.  In  El  Cajon  the  rainfall  is 
only  half  that  much,  and  the  moisture  in  this  case  must  be  sought 
partly  in  the  subsoil,  which  is  especially  retentive  of  moisture,  as  well 
as  in  the  dew,  and  the  warm  fogs  from  the  ocean.  The  subsoil  has 
the  greatest  possible  influence,  as  in  other  valleys  near  by,  where  the 
fog  and  the  dew  are  the  same,  but,  where  the  subsoil  is  different,  no 
raisin  grapes  can  be  grown  without  irrigation.  Malaga  is  in  this 
respect  very  similar  to  El  Cajon  and  Sweetwater  valleys,  but  it  enjoys 
more  rainfall  than  the  latter  places,  while  probably  the  dew  and  fog  is 
about  the  same.  Still  in  Malaga  irrigation  is  used  in  a  few  isolated 
localities  where  it  can  be  obtained,  the  nature  of  that  country  being 
such,  that  no  general  irrigation  system  is  possible,  and  this  is  probably, 
more  than  anything  else,  the  reason  why  tKe  vines  are  not  more  gen- 
erally irrigated  there.  In  Chile,  in  the  valley  of  the  Huasco,  the 
Muscat  vines  are  grown  both  with  and  without  irrigation,  the  condi- 
tions there  appearing  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  El  Cajon  valley  in 
San  Diego  county.  From  the  above  we  might  draw  a  general  conclu- 
sion, that  wherever  the  raisin-vines  cannot  grow  without  irrigation, 
and  wherever  water  can  be  had  in  sufficient  quantities,  irrigation  is 
practiced  in  order  to  increase  the  crops  and  to  make  the  business  more 
profitable. 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  79 

Health  and  Longevity  of  Irrigated  Vines. — As  regards  the  health  of 
the  vines,  the  old  idea  in  this  country  that  vines  would  suffer  from 
irrigation  is  decidedly  erroneous.  The  vines  of  Denia  in  Spain  have 
been  irrigated  for  eighty  years  or  more,  and  are  to-day  the  healthiest 
vines  in  Spain.  Similarly,  the  Fresno  vines,  where  the  water  level,  as 
in  Denia,  is  only  from  five  to  ten  feet  below  the  surface,  show  no  signs 
of  decay,  while  many  of  the  raisin-vines  in  other  parts  of  the  State, 
especially  where  planted  on  the  hillsides,  show  diseases  which  baffle 
the  cultivator.  I  do  not,  of  course,  mean  to  say  that  irrigated  raisin- 
vines  are  entirely  free  from  diseases,  but  only  that,  so  far,  the 
healthiest  and  strongest  raisin-vines  of  the  world  are  those  which  are 
irrigated,  and  which  have  always  been  irrigated.  Of  course  in  this 
respect  the  Muscat  grapes,  as  well  as  the  currant  vines,  differ  mate- 
rially from  certain  wine  grapes,  which  as  a  rule  have  originated  on 
drier  soils,  and  which,  if  grown  with  irrigation,  deteriorate  and  yield 
inferior  fruit.  The  raisin-vines  require  much  moisture,  and,  if  this  is 
not  supplied  in  one  way  or  another,  they  will  suffer  and  prove  unprofit- 
able. The  same  is  observed  in  soils  which  rapidly  lose  their  moisture. 
In  such  soils  the  Muscat  is  not  at  home,  and  its  health  and  vigor  is 
seriously  impaired. 

The  Bearing  Quality  of  Irrigated  Vines. — In  regard  to  the  bearing 
quality  of  the  raisin  grapes  under  irrigation,  we  know  with  certainty 
that  the  irrigated  raisin-vines  yield  by  far  the  most.  In  Valencia  and 
Denia,  the  vines  yield  from  five  to  ten  tons  to  the  acre,  and  so  do  those 
of  Riverside  and  Fresno,  while  the  El  Cajon  unirrigated  vines  yield 
only  from  one  to  two  tons  per  acre.  If  the  latter  place  would  irrigate 
judiciously,  its  Muscat  vines  would  no  doubt  bear  as  well  as  those  of 
any  other  locality.  I  am  led  to  this  belief  from  what  I  have  seen  of 
irrigated  grapes  elsewhere  in  San  Diego  county,  which  were  fully  as 
well  loaded  as  the  heaviest  vines  in  San  Bernardino  county  or  Fresno. 

Quality  of  hrigated  Grapes. — That  the  quality  of  the  irrigated  raisin 
grape  is  increased  by  judicious  irrigation  is  readily  seen  in  all  irrigated 
districts,  where  those  vines  which  receive  their  proper  share  of  water 
produce  the  largest  bunches  and  berries.  But  it  is  also  evident  that 
too  much  water  will  cause  a  deficiency  of  sugar  in  the  grapes,  as  well 
as  a  lack  of  flavor,  by  which  the  irrigated  grapes  can  always  be  distin- 
guished from  those  grown  with  natural  moisture.  Grapes  too  freely 
irrigated  are  not  alone  wanting  in  sugar,  but  also  in  color.  Such 
grapes  remain  green  to  the  end  of  the  season,  and  never  assume  that 
amber  color  so  valued  in  grapes,  and  which  always  indicates  before- 
hand what  raisins  they  will  produce  when  properly  dried.  In  our 
interior  valleys,  where  the  sun  and  the  wind  sometimes  produce  sun- 
scald  of  the  berries,  which  again  causes  them  to  fall  off  or  dry  up  long 
before  they  are  properly  ripe,  this  defect  is  much  more  frequent  on 
vines  which  suffer  from  want  of  water  than  on  those  which  have  had 
enough.  When  the  soil  is  not  subirrigated,  it  is  therefore  advisable  to 
irrigate  the  vines  at  the  end  of  June,  just  before  the  hottest  part  of  the 
summer  arrives.  Similarly,  irrigation  will  help  to  swell  out  the  berries 
if  applied  just  before  they  commence  to  ripen. 

-In  conclusion  we  might  with  truth  say  that  the  raisin  grapes  may  in 
many  localities  be  grown  without  irrigation,  but  that  in  California,  in 


80  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

Greece  and  in  Spain,  the  largest  and  most  prosperous  districts  are 
those  where  the  raisin- vines  are  liberally  irrigated.  The  Muscat  grape 
seems  especially  to  love  water,  and,  in  the  real  raisin  districts,  the 
healthiest  vineyards  are  those  that  are  best  irrigated.  The  berries  and 
bunches  are  also  increased  in  size,  but  not  in  flavor  and  aroma,  by 
irrigation.  In  places  where  the  raisin  grapes  will  not  bear  without 
irrigation,  the  latter,  of  course,  is  a  necessity.  There  are  always 
naturally  subirrigated  parts,  in  every  county  or  district,  where  artificial 
irrigation  is  not  required.  But  these  parts  are  generally  confined  to 
river  bottoms  or  to  natural  sinks,  which,  so  far,  have  played  no  impor- 
tant part  in  the  raisin  industry.  Considered  from  a  practical  stand- 
point, irrigation  of  the  raisin-vines  is  necessary  in  California,  and, 
should  it  from  some  reason  or  other  be  made  impossible,  the  raisin 
industry  would  not  prove  profitable  or  even  possible,  except  in  a  few 
very  limited  localities. 

Much  has  been  written  in  regard  to  the  supposed  unhealthiness  of 
the  irrigated  vineyards.  The  malaria  prevalent  in  some  vineyards  is 
no  doubt  caused  by  irrigation;  but  it  has  been  amply  proved  in  Fresno 
and  elsewhere  that  if  the  grower  would  know  from  the  beginning 
how  to  so  prepare  his  land  that  there  would  be  no  stagnant  pools, 
no  waste  water,  and  no  swampy  grounds,  the  so  much  talked  of  malaria 
would  be  as  rare  in  the  irrigated  vineyards  as  anywhere  else.  It  is  not 
the  irrigation  that  causes  malaria,  but  the  waste  of  the  water,  the  care- 
lessness of  the  irrigator  and  the  faultiness  of  the  badly  constructed 
irrigation  works.  After  the  vineyard  has  been  irrigated  a  few  years, 
the  malaria  leaves  it  entirely.  This  is  the  experience  in  Fresno  where 
the  vineyards,  after  years  of  irrigation,  have  become  perfectly  healthy. 

Various  Methods  of  Irrigation. — There  are  several  methods  of  irriga- 
tion now  practiced  in  the  irrigated  vineyard  districts.  We  may  irri- 
gate by  flooding  the  land  or  by  leading  the  water  in  furrows  between 
the  vines.  Both  ways,  but  especially  the  former,  may,  if  continued 
long  enough,  cause  subirrigation,  the  most  desirable  state  of  irrigation. 
The  choice  of  methods  of  irrigating  does  not  always  lie  with  ourselves, 
but  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  water  at  our  command,  the  lay  of  the 
land,  etc.  Sometimes  one  method  will  in  course  of  time  give  room 
to  another,  and  again,  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  years,  continued  irriga- 
tion may  not  be  necessary  or  desirable. 

Irrigation  by  Flooding. — This  method  consists  of  flooding  the  land 
either  by  means  of  checks  and  banks,  which  must  have  been  constructed 
before  the  vines  were  planted,  or  in  simply  flooding  ground  which 
is  naturally  level.  In  either  case  the  land  must  naturally  not  be  too 
rough,  and  the  water  must  be  abundant,  else  this  method  cannot  be 
used.  It  will  always  pay  to  engage  the  services  of  an  engineer  in 
preparing  such  ground  for  vines.  The  extra  cost  will  be  more  than 
paid  for  in  the  first  few  years,  when  frequent  irrigations  of  the  vineyard 
are  as  necessary  as  they  are  expensive.  The  ditch  supplying  the 
vineyard  should  always  run  on  the  highest  ground,  and  in  no  instance 
should  it  be  run  through  low  ground  when  high  ground  can  be  had, 
as  the  low  ground  may  in  the  future  have  to  be  used  for  drainage, 
about  which  we  will  treat  further  on.  From  the  main  canal,  branch 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  81 

ditches  should  run  out  at  right  angles  if  possible,  or  if  the  ground 
is  very  uneven  they  may  follow  the  highest  parts.  The  ground 
between  these  ditches  should  be  properly  leveled  into  checks. 
With  checks  the  irrigator  simply  measures  a  piece  of  ground  of 
any  size  which  is  surrounded  by  a  levee  or  bank.  This  bank  must 
be  high  enough  to  allow  the  water  to  cover  all  of  the  ground  as  soon 
as  the  check  is  filled  with  water  from  the  ditch. 

To  make  the  ground  level  enough,  it  is  generally  necessary  to 
level  it  with  scrapers.  The  more  level  is  the  surface  the  better, 
cheaper  and  quicker  will  be  the  irrigation,  and  no  small  amount  of 
trouble  will  be  avoided  if  this  work  is  properly  done  before  the  vines 
are  planted.  Too  little  of  this  leveling  is  done  in  some  places,  and  I 
have  seen  thousands  of  acres  planted  in  Muscat  vines  which  were  so 
improperly  leveled  that  the  profits  of  the  vineyard  in  after  years  would 
be  seriously  interfered  with.  To  understand  how  this  can  be  possible, 
we  must  remember  what  takes  place  when  we  irrigate  and  after  we 
have  irrigated.  The  gate  in  the  ditch  is  opened,  the  water  flows  out 
and  runs  immediately  down  to  the  lowest  part  of  the  check.  When 
this  part  is  reached,  the  check  begins  to  fill  up.  If  the  ground  is 
very  uneven,  it  may  take  days  to  fill  the  check,  and  the  lower  part 
will  require  to  be  covered  several  feet  with  water  before  it  will  reach 
the  higher  parts,  which  always  need  irrigation  the  most.  To  back  it 
up  so  high  requires  also  a  correspondingly  high  levee,  which  again  is 
more  apt  to  break  and  cause  trouble  and  expense  the  higher  it  is.  After 
the  water  has  reached  the  highest  possible  point,  the  flow  is  shut  off, 
and  the  water  begins  to  subside.  The  highest  part  of  the  land  becomes 
dry  the  first,  and  quickly,  while  it  may  take  days  or  even  weeks  to  dry 
up  the  lowest  part  of  the  check.  When  at  last  the  check  is  all  dry  it 
may  be  found  that  the  lowest  vines  have  been  injured  or  entirely 
drowned  out.  When  summer  irrigation  is  used,  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  have  the  ground  level,  so  that  when  it  is  flooded  the  water  will 
not  reach  up  to  the  grapes,  as  they  spoil  when  coming  in  contact  with 
the  water. 

The  time  when  flooding  should  be.  used  must  depend  upon  circum- 
stances. As  a  rule,  flooding  is  especially  adapted  to  winter  irrigation, 
as,  when  the  vines  are  entirely  dormant,  they  may  be  submerged  for 
months  without  suffering  any  harm.  Young  vineyards  may  also  be 
flooded  in  summer  time,  but,  when  the  grapes  begin  to  appear,  flooding 
can  only  be  done  in  the  winter  or  when  the  land  is  absolutely  level, 
but  even  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  many  grapes  are 
always  lost.  Some  have  so  prepared  their  vineyards  that  a  check, 
when  flooded,  can  be  drained  into  a  lower  check  or  into  a  ditch.  This 
is  a  very  good  arrangement  where  the  land  is  not  entirely  level,  as  it 
will  cause  the  low  places  to  dry  up  as  quickly  as  possible.  But  a 
better  way  is  to  have  the  ground  so  level  that  the  water  will  sink 
evenly  and  leave  no  sinks  nor  any  high  and  prematurely  dry  places. 
There  are,  however,  soils  so  composed  that  the  water  cannot  sink 
through  them  in  any  reasonably  short  time.  Such  heavy  soils  must  be 
surface  drained  after  every  flooding,  or  perhaps  had  best  be  given  up 
to  some  other  method  of  irrigation.  But  such  hard  or  impervious 


82  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

soils  are  frequently  improved  by  irrigation,  and  in  course  of  time  lose 
their  impervious  nature  and  become  subirrigated.  If  the  land  is  toler- 
ably level  by  nature,  and  there  are  prospects  of  subirrigation  soon 
appearing,  it  may  be  unnecessary  to  level  the  land,  and  flooding  with 
temporary  checks  may  be  used  with  advantage  for  the  first  few  seasons. 
Furrowing  will  generally  assist  this  mode  of  irrigation. 

Irrigation  by  Furrowing. — This  method  of  irrigation  is  practiced 
where  the  land  is  not  sufficiently  level  to  be  flooded, or  when  the  water  is 
not  sufficient  to  enable  the  irrigator  in  a  short  time  to  flood  the  land. 
The  practice  of  furrowing  simply  consists  in  plowing  furrows  alongside 
of  the  vines,  and  then  to  lead  the  water  in  the  furrows.  This  system 
is  by  far  the  one  that  is  most  practiced  in  Southern  California,  as  it  has 
some  advantages  over  the  flooding;  it  is,  however,  not  so  effective  and 
cannot  supply  the  vineyard  with  as  much  water  as  flooding.  To  use 
the  furrowing  system  to  advantage,  the  land  must  have  been  previously 
leveled,  but  not  necessarily  graded  to  an  absolute  level.  It  is  enough 
to  have  the  surface  smooth  and  on  an  even  grade,  in  order  that  the 
water  may  run  from  a  higher  point  to  a  lower  one  without  spreading 
or  breaking  out.  Especially  all  knolls  in  the  vineyard  must  be 
leveled  off,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  fill  all  hollows  or  sinks  in  which 
the  water  would  otherwise  collect. 

After  the  vines  are  planted,  or  when  irrigation  is  necessary,  one  or 
more  furrows  are  plowed  on  each  side  of  the  vine,  and  the  water  is 
allowed  to  run  in  them  for  several  hours,  or  even  days,  until  the  soil 
is  sufficiently  soaked.  In  many  places  three  furrows  are  made  between 
the  rows  of  vines,  and  the  water  is  allowed  to  run  in  at  one  end  and 
out  through  the  other  in  a  stream  only  sufficiently  large  to  cause  all  the 
water  to  sink.  Where  particular  nicety  is  required,  the  waste  water 
which  runs  out  at  the  farther  end  may  be  collected  in  a  trough  with  per- 
forated holes,  through  which  it  is  conducted  to  a  ditch  or  lower  check. 
Similarly,  a  long  trough  may  be  used  for  conducting  the  water  to  the 
land  in  the  first  instance,  and  allow  it  to  run  out  through  a  number  of 
small  holes,  one  of  which  is  situated  in  front  of  every  furrow.  When 
the  ground  is  well  prepared,  level  and  with  an  even  slope,  this  system 
of  irrigation  is  very  perfect,  and  causes  but  little  expense  and  trouble 
in  management.  In  Riverside  the  vines  are  irrigated  thus  every  three 
or  five  weeks,  while  in  Redlands  less  irrigation  is  used  on  old  vines. 
As  a  rule,  in  Southern  California  the  furrowing  system  is  the  accepted 
one  as  being  best  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  country.  The  water  is 
conducted  both  in  open  ditches  and  in  pipes,  and  when  under  pres- 
sure saves  much  labor  and  expense  which  would  otherwise  be  required 
for  the  continued  construction  and  repair  of  ditches. 

The  furrowing  system  has,  however,  its  Disadvantages.  It  requires 
a  longer  time  to  fill  the  soil  sufficiently,  and  accordingly  it  takes  many 
more  irrigations  to  accomplish  as  much  as  with  flooding.  As  advan- 
tages of  this  system,  we  might  state  that  it  requires  no  banks  or 
levees  to  back  up  the  water,  and  a  vineyard  irrigated  this  way  can  be 
kept  entirely  free  from  weeds  by  a  few  cultivations,  while  a  checked 
vineyard  must  besides  be  cleared  with  hand  labor,  as  the  banks  and 
checks  are  apt  to  be  destroyed  by  cultivation. 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  83 

Subirrigation. — Subirrigation  may  be  either  artificial  or  natural. 
The  artificial  Subirrigation  has,  as  far  as  I  know,  only  been  used  in  a 
few  vineyards  in  Yolo  and  Solano  counties,  the  report,  shortly  after  it 
had  been  established,  being  very  flattering  as  regards  its  success.  But 
of  late  years  we  have  heard  nothing  about  this  kind  of  irrigation,  and 
it  is  likely  that  some  practical  difficulty  was  encountered  which  could 
not  be  fully  overcome.  The  artificial  Subirrigation  consists  in  laying 
larger  and  smaller  cement  pipes  between  the  rows  of  the  vines.  These 
pipes  are  perforated  in  various  places,  and,  when  filled  with  water 
under  pressure,  the  water  runs  through  the  perforated  holes  and  keeps 
the  ground  outside  the  pipes  constantly  moist,  without  causing  the 
surface  of  the  soil  to  get  wet  and  weedy,  and  herein  consist  the  princi- 
pal advantages  of  the  system,  as  well  as  in  the  fact  that  rolling  ground 
can  be  irrigated  thus  without  being  previously  leveled  and  without 
being  cut  up  with  open  ditches.  The  difficulty  of  keeping  the  holes 
open  and  of  preventing  the  roots  of  the  vines  from  entering  the  pipes 
is,  I  understand,  very  great  and  probably  impossible  to  overcome. 
Both  irrigation  water  and  liquid  manures  could  by  this  system  be 
supplied  to  the  roots  of  the  vines  directly  without  any  waste,  and,  in 
cases  of  diseases  or  attacks  by  underground  pests,  medicines  or  insecti- 
cides could  be  brought  to  the  soil  with  the  least  possible  cost. 

The  natural  Subirrigation  is  caused  either  by  the  whole  soil  filling 
up  with  water  from  the  natural  and  original  water  level  to  the  very 
top  or  to  the  roots  of  the  vines,  or  from  an  impervious  hardpan  or 
clay,  as  subsoil,  up  towards  the  surface.  As  an  example  of  the  former 
we  might  cite  the  country  around  the  irrigated  plains  of  the  San 
Joaquin  valley,  especially  around  Fresno  and  in  Mussel  Slough.  Be- 
fore irrigation  was  begun  there  in  1872,  the  surface  water  was  from 
sixty  to  seventy  feet  from  the  top  east  of  the  railroad,  and  from  forty 
to  fifty  feet  west  of  the  railroad,  lower  down  in  the  valley.  After  five 
years  of  irrigation  it  began  to  be  noticed  that  the  soil  required  less 
water.  The  water  in  the  wells  began  to  rise,  and  the  following  year 
the  water  stood  in  many  places  near  or  on  the  top  of  the  surface. 
Now  the  whole  irrigated  district  ground  Fresno  has  filled  up  with 
water  to  such  an  extent  that  drainage  ditches  have  become  necessary 
in  some  places  in  order  to  lower  the  water  in  the  wet  season  some  four 
or  five  feet  from  the  surface.  Many  more  drainage  ditches  will  be 
required,  as  in  wet  winters  the  surface  water  in  places  is  not  only  very 
near  the  top,  but  actually  forms  ponds  or  swamps  where  formerly  the 
ground  was  entirely  dry. 

In  the  old  irrigated  districts,  water  can  now  be  found  at  from  six  to 
ten  feet  in  the  driest  season,  while  formerly  the  wells  had  to  be  from 
fifty  to  seventy  feet  deep.  In  the  older  vineyards,  and  even  in  many 
of  the  younger  ones,  no  more  surface  irrigation  is  used;  all  that  is  now 
required  is  to  allow  the  water  to  run  in  the  main  ditches,  in  which  the 
water  sinks  sufficiently  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  the  evaporation  of 
the  ground  outside.  Large  tracts  of  land  which  have  never  been  sur- 
face irrigated  are  now  sufficiently  moist  to  grow  vines  to  the  greatest 
perfection,  and  many  of  the  best  vineyards  have  never  been  irrigated 
at  all;  in  fact,  nothing  but  drainage  ditches  have  ever  been  made  on 


84  THK     RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

the  land.  Whenever  such  subirrigation  exists,  the  water  level  will  be 
found  higher  in  the  winter  than  in  the  summer,  and  drainage  should 
accompany  subirrigation  in  nearly  every  instance.  A  subirrigation 
like  the  above  exists  in  Denia  and  other  of  the  Spanish  districts. 
Subirrigation  may  be  also  caused  by  either  impervious  subsoils,  such 
as  hardpaii  and  clay,  or  by  spongy  subsoils,  which  keep  the  water  like 
a  sponge.  Such  is  the  case  to  a  limited  extent  in  parts  of  San  Ber- 
nardino county.  At  Redlands,  for  instance,  much  less  irrigation  is 
now  used  than  when  the  vines  were  first  planted,  and  this  fact  is 
attributed  to  a  spongy  subsoil  peculiarly  retentive  of  water.  A  similar 
subirrigation  exists  in  the  Mussel  Slough  country,  where  the  water 
rapidly  fills  the  land  and  keeps  it  moist  throughout  the  summer.  The 
phenomenal  moisture  of  the  El  Cajon  land  is  probably  also  produced 
by  some  kind  of  subirrigation,  either  on  impervious  or  through  reten- 
tive strata;  the  waste  water  from  the  surrounding  hills  no  doubt 
supplies  much  of  the  water  appearing  in  the  lower  lands  of  the  valley. 
Other  valleys  close  by  do  not  show  this  moisture,  the  underlying  strata 
probably  making  subirrigation  impossible  with  the  present  amount  of 
rainfall. 

Seepage. — Seepage  is  the  quality  of  the  soil  to  attract  moisture  and 
retain  it.  Seepage  soils  attract  the  water  from  a  ditch  run  through 
the  land,  the  water  spreading  all  through  the  soil  towards  all  sides 
instead  of  sinking  only  vertically  down.  There  is  a  distinct  difference 
between  such  seepage  soils  and  those  that  do  not  seep,  although  there 
is  a  gradation  in  the  degree  of  the  seepage,  some  soils  seeping  more 
than  others.  Thus  the  Fresno  soil,  or  the  soils  on  the  Fresno  plains, 
especially  the  red  and  sandy  soils,  do  not  seep  or  percolate.  Vines 
planted  on  the  sides  of  the  ditches,  or  a  foot  or  two  from  their  banks, 
will  die  and  dry  up  if  not  specially  irrigated  by  bringing  water  to 
their  very  roots.  Other  soils,  especially  the  river-bottom  soils  or  the 
alluvial  soils,  seep  or  percolate  in  a  great  or  less  degree.  They  act 
like  a  sponge,  attract  water  and  give  it  away  slowly,  and  the  soil  will 
be  found  wet  for  long  distances  from  the  ditch.  This  seepage  capacity 
of  the  soil  is  partly  caused  by  an  abundance  of  humus  or  vegetable 
matter.  The  seepage  capacity  of  the  soil  greatly  increases  by  admix- 
tures of  green  vegetable  matters  through  the  plowing  under  of  green 
crops,  such  as  alfalfa,  peas,  beans,  grain,  etc.  The  value  of  seepage 
soils  is  seen  especially  where  some  uneven  ground  is  scraped  off  and 
the  top  soil  removed  to  low  places.  Such  ground  often  becomes  use- 
less for  years  afterwards,  especially  if  the  quantity  of  humus  in  the 
lower  soils  is  small.  Frequent  irrigations  will  not  serve  to  keep  such 
soils  moist,  as  the  water  sinks  rapidly  down,  leaving  the  poor  top  soil 
dry.  Vines  planted  in  such  places  never  -do  well,  and  even  heavy 
manuring  will  not  suffice  to  bring  on  a  strong,  healthy  growth.  Such 
humus-wanting  soils  must  be  treated  with  green  crops,  as  stated  above, 
in  order  to  become  fertile  and  moist.  Thus  seepage  and  subirrigation 
are  often  confounded.  The  former  is  caused  by  the  retentive  and 
communicative  quality  of  the  soil,  while  the  latter  is  caused  by  the 
natural  or  artificial  distribution  of  the  underground  water. 

Subirrigation  and  seepage  combined  make  the  most  perfect  irrigation 
for  a  raisin  vineyard,  with  advantages  that  can  in  no  other  way  be 


THE     RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  85 

attained :  absence  of  distribution  ditches,  which  take  up  valuable 
land  and  which  cost  money  to  keep  clean  from  weeds ;  less  growth 
of  weeds  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  ;  greater  mellowness  of  the  top 
soil  and  less  work  in  plowing  generally ;  a  greater  and  more  uniform 
supply  of  moisture,  which,  instead  of  being  near  the  top  of  the  ground, 
is  accumulated  deeper  down,  thus  causing  the  roots  to  go  down  instead 
of  spreading  near  the  surface ;  no  expensive  irrigation,  which  will 
require  plowing  every  time  after  the  water  is  spread  on  the  surface; 
a  greater  coolness  of  the  ground  and  a  lower  temperature  generally, 
which  shows  itself  in  a  more  vigorous  growth  of  the  vines,  a  greater 
supply  of  grapes  and  less  danger  from  sunburn.  These  and  many 
more  are  the  advantages  of  subirrigation  and  seepage  combined.  To 
attain  them  in  a  raisin  vineyard,  no  labor  and  reasonable  cost  should 
be  spared. 

Drainage. — Drainage  is  necessary  in  all  vineyards  where  large  quan- 
tities of  water  are  used  for  irrigation,  and  principally  at  the  very  time 
that  subirrigation  begins.  Thus  in  Fresno  county  the  best  raisin  vine- 
yards are  those  in  which  the  land  is  both  subirrigated  and  drained. 
When  irrigation  commences  in  any  certain  district,  no  one  thinks  of 
drainage  as  a  possibility,  and  great  carelessness  is  shown  in  locating 
ditches  and  other  irrigation  works.  But  in  a  few  years,  when  the  soil 
is  full  of  water  which  finds  no  outlet,  drainage  becomes  both  necessary 
and  desirable.  A  very  successful  and  highly  necessary  drain  has  been 
constructed  through  a  part  of  the  Fresno  district,  which  so  filled  up 
with  water  during  the  rainy  winter  of  1883-84  that  much  of  the 
ground  could  not  be  plowed  until  late  in  the  spring.  The  drain 
remedied  the  evil  and  drained  the  soil,  and  the  vineyards  grown  there 
are  now  counted  among  the  best  and  most  profitable.  The  water  thus 
drained  off  lowered  the  water  level  from  six  to  seven  feet.  In  very  dry 
seasons  this  ditch  is  filled  with  water,  and  serves  then  to  keep  the 
soil  moist  through  seepage  or  subirrigation. 

The  Influence  of  Irrigation  on  the  Soil. — It  is  by  many  considered 
that  irrigation  helps  to  fertilize  the  soil.  The  spring  and  flood  water 
contain  great  quantities  of  mud  and  humus,  which  when  spread  over 
the  land  will  greatly  increase  its.  fertility.  Even  ordinary  river  water 
contains  salts  and  other  ingredients,  which  will  fertilize  the  soil  to  no 
small  degree.  Another  cause  of  the  increased  fertility  of  subirrigated 
soils  is  that  the  water  which  constantly  evaporates  carries  with  it 
salts,  etc. ,  from  the  lower  strata  up  towards  the  surface,  and  makes 
them  accessible  to  the  roots  of  the  vines.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  if 
the  water  or  the  soils  contain  alkalies  or  other  destructive  substances, 
these  also  are  deposited  on  the  surface  to  the  great  detriment  of  the 
vines,  and  often  to  such  an  extent  that  the  vines  will,  die  or  become 
sickly.  Too  abundant  flooding  may  also  leach  out  of  the  soil  its 
soluble  salts,  and  carry  them  deeper  down  in  the  ground.  But  if  this 
soil  after  a  while  fills  up  with  water  and  becomes  subirrigated,  the 
evaporation  of  water  from  the  surface  will  gradually  carry  these  salts 
back  to  the  surface,  when  they  will  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
Where  drainage  is  very  perfect,  constant  irrigation  will  gradually  rob 
the  soil  of  many  of  its  soluble  salts,  and  carry  them  to  places  where 


86  THE:  RAISIN  INDUSTRY. 

they  will  forever  be  out  of  the  reach  of  the  vines.  To  ascertain  these 
facts  and  conditions,  every  vineyardist  should  have  the  soil  analyzed 
about  every  five  years,  and  too  great  care  cannot  be  taken  to  keep  the 
soil  of  proper  strength. 

Another  influence  of  irrigation  on  the  soil  may  also  be  mentioned 
here.  Some  of  the  soils  in  the  irrigated  districts  which  were  formerly 
very  hard  and  difficult  to  work  have  in  course  of  time  changed  and 
become  mellow.  The  water  has  undoubtedly  caused  a  chemical  and 
mechanical  decomposition  of  the  components  of  the  soil,  which  has 
caused  it  to  continually  improve.  Bven  certain  kinds  of  hardpan 
have  been  known  to  dissolve  when  irrigated,  and  to  change  into  useful 
and  mellow  soil,  in  which  the  vines  can  find  nutriment.  Such  hard- 
pans  are  those  which  are  generally  found  in  very  dark  red  soils;  those 
in  lighter  soils  are  not  so  readily  dissolved. 


THE   RAISIN  GRAPES. 

Introductory  Notes. — The  raisin  grapes  might  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  —proper  and  genuine,  such  as  Muscats,  Sultanas  and  Cur- 
rants, and  irregular  or  inferior  raisin  grapes,  such  as  Malagas  and 
Feher  Szagos.  Now-a-days  almost  any  kind  of  grapes  are  dried  and 
sometimes  called  raisins,  but  the  proper  name  for  them  should  be 
dried  grapes.  With  these  we  need  not  here  busy  ourselves,  as  with  a 
few  exceptions  they  are  of  little  value,  and  cannot  be  compared  with 
the  regular  raisin  grapes,  either  as  regards  quality,  demand  or  price. 

Muscatel  or  Gordo  Blanco. — This  variety  is  the  best  type  of  the  raisin 
grape  of  Malaga.  Its  growth  is  low  and  spreading,  with  no  upright 
branches  in  the  center.  Its  bunches  are  heavy,  and,  when  perfect,  \A 
close  and  shouldered.  Its  berries  are  round  and  large,  the  greatest  yO 
circumference  being  at  the  center.  A  crease  is  often  found  at  the 
apex  of  the  berry.  The  color  is  green,  or,  when  fully  ripe,  amber 
green  or  yellow.  As  compared  with  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  this 
variety  is  distinguished,  when  perfect,  by  its  low,  depressed  growth, 
without  any  upright  branches  in  the  center  of  the  vine;  by  a  closer 
bunch;  by  rounder  berries,  and  by  a  thicker  and  firmer  bloom.  The 
berries  set  better  than  those  of  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  although 
both  varieties  suffer  from  the  early  stages  of  oidium  or  colure.  The 
Gordo  Blanco  is  the  choice  raisin  grape  for  the  San  Joaquin  valley, 
and  for  the  interior  generally.  It  is  the  raisin  grape  of  Malaga  in 
Spain,  where  it  is  probable  the  variety  originated.  Importations  of 
this  variety  have  been  made  to  California  at  various  times  by  A. 
Haraszthy  in  1861,  and  by  W.  S.  Chapman  in  1876. 

Muscat  of  Alexandria.— The.  growth  of  this  variety  is  upright  in 
the  center.  Its  clusters,  even  when^  perfect,  are  never  close.  Its  ber- 
ries are  oblong  and  tapering,  the^ largest  circumference  being  near 
the  apex.  The  color  when  fully  ripe  is  amber  green  or  yellowish 
green.  The  leaves  of  both  varieties  of  Muscats  are  five-pointed, 
light  green,  lighter  below,  and  do  not  differ  materially  from  each 
other.  Both  Muscats  are  remarkable  for  their  second  and  third 
growths,  and  for  the  large  second  crop  on  the  laterals. 

The  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  as  compared  with  the  Gordo  Blanco,  is 
characterized  by  its  oblong  berries,  and  by  its  more  upright  branches 
in  the  center  of  the  vine.  Its  growth  is  more  straggling  than  that 
of  the  Gordo  Blanco,  and,  planted  side  by  side,  the  two  varieties  are 
distinctly  characteristic.  The  Muscat  of  Alexandria  is  the  favorite 
raisin  grape  in  Southern  California,  where  it  seems  eminently  adapted. 
I  found  no  other  Muscat  in  San  Bernardino  and  San  Diego  counties. 
The  most  magnificent  bunches  of  this  variety  which  I  have  ever  seen 
were  grown  there  only  a  few  miles  from  the  ocean, — bunches  that 
could  not  be  surpassed,  and  which  certainly  were  equal  in  weight  to 


88 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 


any  Gordo  Blanco  that  have  ever  come  under  my  notice.  A.  B. 
Butler  considers  that  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria  does  equally  as  well 
as  the  Gordo  Blanco  in  Fresno,  but  most  growers  are  not  ready  to 
agree  with  him. 


2.— Planting  Bar  (Fresno).      3.— Fresno  "  Sheep's-foot."     4.— Muscat  of  Alexandria  (N.  S.). 
5.— -Muscatel  Gordo  Blanco. 

The  raisin  made  from  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria  looks  smaller  on 
account  of  its  oblong  form,  and  is  less  suited  for  facing  the  boxes,  but 
as  to  other  qualities,  such  as  taste,  sweetness  and  color,  there  is  no 
marked  difference  between  these  two  varieties  of  Muscats.  All 
varieties  of  Muscats  set  better  in  moist  air  than  where  the  air  is  very 
dry,  and  the  moister  air  tends  to  better  develop  the  bunches.  This 
explains  why,  in  isolated  vineyards  in  the ,  interior,  the  bunches  are 
never  so  large  as  where  a  large  number  of  acres  of  vines  have  modi- 
fied the  often  excessive  dryness  of  the  atmosphere.  As  to  the  relative 
distribution  of  these  two  varieties  of  Muscats  in  our  State,  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  former  is  not  based  upon  any  particular  adaptability 
of  the  respective  varieties  to  the  localities  where  they  are  grown. 
The  Muscat  of  Alexandria  is  the  older  variety  of  the  two,  probably 
both  in  Spain  as  well  as  in  California.  To  Valencia  in  Spain  it  was 


THE:  RAISIN   INDUSTRY.  89 

brought  by  the  Moors  from  Africa,  or  possibly  from  Alexandria  in 
Egypt.  The  Gordo  Blanco  again  appears  to  be  a  native  Spanish 
variety,  especially  adapted  to  the  warmer  region  of  Malaga  or  South- 
ern Spain.  The  Gordo  Blanco  is  the  principal  grape  of  Malaga; 
the  Muscat  of  Alexandria  is  the  one  grown  in  Valencia  and  Denia 
and  also  in  Smyrna  in  Asia  Minor. 

In  California  the  Gordo  Blanco  is  found  around  Woodland  in  Yolo 
county,  throughout  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  and  in  Fresno  it  is  the  favor- 
ite and  almost  exclusive  Muscat  grape.  The  Muscat  of  Alexandria  is 
grown  in  Solano  county  and  elsewhere  in  Northern  California,  while 
it  is  the  exclusive  grape  in  Riverside,  Redlands,  Orange  county  and 
El  Cajon,  and  probably  elsewhere  in  San  Diego  county  or  Southern 
California  generally.  The  Muscat  of  Alexandria  was  imported  by 
Colonel  Agoston  Haraszthy  in  1852  from  Malaga,  and  by  D.  M.  Delmas 
some  thirty-eight  years  ago  from  France. 

Iluasco  Muscat. — This  variety  (pronounced  Uasco)  resembles  very 
much  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  of  which  it  is  probably  a  seedling, 
and  was  introduced  into  Chile  by  the  Spaniards  soon  after  the  conquest. 
According  to  Professor  E.  W.  Hilgard,  this  variety  sets  better  than  the 
Alexandria,  and  on  that  account  deserves  to  be  cultivated.  It  is 
strange  that  no  attempts  have  been  made  in  this  country  to  grow  it  on 
a  larger  scale.  The  Huasco  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing grapes,  and  the  fact  that  it  produces  the  most  expensive  raisins  in 
the  world  should  be  a  sufficient  inducement  to  our  California  growers 
to  at  least  study  the  variety  closely.  I  should  think  that  El  Cajon 
valley  would  be  the  proper  locality  for  it  in  this  State. 

Other  Varieties  of  Muscats. — A  variety  of  Muscatel  resembling  the 
Gordo  Blanco,  but  with  more  erect  growth,  is  said  to  have  been  im- 
ported by  G.  G.  Briggs  of  Davisville,  Solano  county.  I  have  seen  it 
growing  in  the  vineyard  of  George  A.  Freeman  of  Fresno,  but  cannot 
distinguish  its  berries  from  those  of  the  Gordo  Blanco.  The  growth 
of  the  vine  is  more  erect,  and  leaves  the  center  of  the  vine  rather 
uncovered  and  exposed.  I  would  decidedly  prefer  the  Gordo  Blanco. 
A  seedling  of  the  Gordo  Blanco  -originated  by  the  author  is  now 
growing  on  the  Floreal  vineyard,  owned  by  J.  T.  Goodman,  near  Fresno. 
This  variety  promised  a  great  deal  the  first  season.  I  have  no  doubt 
that,  with  some  selection  of  berries  and  bunches,  many  new  and  valu- 
able raisin  grapes  could  be  originated  in  this  State,  varieties  which 
would  be  especially  adapted  to  our  soil  and  climate.  While  our  fruit- 
growers have  produced  a  number  of  new  fruits  of  various  kinds,  we 
have  yet  to  hear  of  the  first  superior  grape  seedlings.  According  to 
the  Rural  Press  of  May  5,  1877,  C.  T.  Ward  of  Haywards,  Alameda 
county,  raised  some  seedlings  from  Huasco  seed,  but  what  has  become 
of  them  I  do  not  know.  Haywards  would  not  be  likely  to  be  a  proper 
place  for  raisin  grapes,  and  even  the  best  variety  could  not  possibly 
be  a  success  there. 

J.  T.  Goodman  of  Fresno  has  a  Muscatel  vine  in  his  vineyard  which 
ripens  ten  days  earlier  than  the  Gordo  Blanco,  but  whether  it  is  a 
seedling  is  not  known.  It  may  prove  a  most  valuable  variety  if 
extensively  grown.  B.  G.  Stabler  of  Yuba  City  tells  me  that  Ch.  E. 


90  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

Swezy,  near  Marysville,  has  raised  a  seedling  from  an  imported 
Dehesa  raisin,  which  in  size,  flavor  and  all  other  qualities  excels  any 
other  table  grape  known,  but  the  flavor  of  the  grape  does  not  resemble 
that  of  the  Muscatel.  I  have  seen  raisins  made  from  this  grape,  but 
they  were  not  desirable;  but  as  a  table  grape  this  variety  is  said  to  be 
superior.  If  so,  this  grape  should  be  tried  in  different  localities, 
and  may  prove  a  real  acquisition.  There  is  no  doubt  that  other 
seedling  raisin  grapes  have  been  raised  in  this  State,  and  we  hope  in 
course  of  time  to  know  all  about  them. 

Seedless  Sultana. — This  grape  is  decidedly  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant raisin  grapes  known.  Its  bunches  are  very  large,  sometimes 
weighing  five  pounds  each.  The  berries  are  round  and  seedless,  the 
size  of  large  peas,  of  a  green  color,  which,  when  the  grape  ripens, 
turns  bright  amber  yellow,  with  small  brown  spots.  The  leaves  are 
large  and  very  entire,  and  more  yellowish  than  those  of  the  Muscat. 
The  growth  of  the  vine  is  upright,  with  erect  or  climbing  branches. 
This  grapevine  in  order  to  bear  must  be  pruned  long,  and  should 
properly  be  staked  from  four  to  five  feet  high.  The  yield  of  the 
Sultana  is  very  heavy,  and  as  much  as  sixteen  tons  of  fresh  grapes 
are  frequently  harvested  from  an  acre,  provided  the  soil  is  the 
very  best  possible.  The  grapes  begin  to  color  and  sweeten  several 
weeks  before  the  Muscat,  but  they  become  fully  ripe  later  than  this 
variety,  and  are  on^that  account  not  as  extensively  grown  as  they  cer- 
tainly deserve  to  be.  For  districts  with  long  summers  and  autumns  the 
Sultana  will  prove  a  very  profitable  and  desirable  grape.  The  native 
home  of  the  Sultana  is  Asia  Minor.  There  it  is  grown  principally 
around  Smyrna  and  in  several  of  the  islands  in  the  Archipelago.  In 
California  only  few  Sultana  vineyards  are  planted;  still  there  is 
undoubtedly  a  great  field  for  this  grape  where  the  seasons  are  long 
enough  to  allow  of  its  perfect  ripening.  The  raisins  are  light  in  color 
and  somewhat  acid,  but  with  no  particular  flavor,  and  in  this  respect 
are  inferior  to  the  Muscats  and  the  Currants.  They  are  produced 
either  by  dipping,  as  is  done  in  Smyrna,  or  by  sun-drying,  as  we  do 
in  this  State.  If  the  dipping  process  is  used,  the  grapes  must  be  very 
ripe,  else  they  will  turn  reddish  and  dark  and  lose  quality.  In  Cali- 
fornia the  Sultana  grape  does  well,  and  only  seldom  produces  seeds. 
In  Eastern  Mediterranean  countries,  except  in  the  few  favored  spots  of 
Smyrna,  or  in  some  of  the  Islands,  this  variety  rapidly  deteriorates 
and  becomes  seed-bearing,  which  of  course  entirely  ruins  its  useful- 
ness. The  Seedless  Sultana  was  first  brought  to  California  by  Colonel 
Agoston  Haraszthy  in  1861. 

Black  Currant. — This  variety  is  but  little  known  in  this  State.  The 
growth  is  erect  and  climbing.  The  bundles  are  long,  narrow  and 
cylindrical,  with  heavy  shoulders.  The  berries  are  small,  of  the  size 
of  peas,  seedless  and  black,  very  sweet  and  with  a  peculiar  aroma  not 
found  in  any  other  variety.  The  Black  Currant  should  be  pruned 
short,  and  the  young  branches  require  staking  in  order  to  bear  well. 
The  home  of  the  Black  Currant  is  the  Grecian  Islands  as  well  as  Morea, 
especially  around  Patras.  Zante,  Cephalonia  and  Ithaca  all  produce 
Currants  of  the  highest  quality. 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  91 

Other  Varieties  of  Currants. — The  White  Currant  grown  in  Califor- 
nia is  not  the  true  raisin  grape  which  produces  the  Currant  of  com- 
merce. The  bunch  and  berry  resemble  the  Black  Currant,  but  differ 
in  not  being  black,  and  in  lacking  the  peculiar  aroma  and  flavor  alone 
possessed  by  the  Black  and  true  Currant.  There  are  in  Greece  several 
other  varieties  of  Currants,  such  as  red  and  gray,  but  these  are  used 
for  wine  and  not  for  raisins.  The  White  and  Red  Currants  were 
introduced  from  Crimea  in  1861  by  Colonel  Agoston  Haraszthy. 

Thompson  Seedless. — This  variety  has  been  growing  in  California  for 
many"  years,  but  has  only  lately  come  into  notice.  It  was  imported 
from  Rochester,  New  York,  from  the  establishment  of  Elwanger  & 
Barry,  about  1872,  and  was  by  them  described  as  a  grape  from  Con- 
stantinople under  the  name  of  I/ady  Decoverly.  Thompson  Seedless  is 
the  name  given  this  grape  by  the  local  growers  around  Yuba  City,  and 
not  the  original  name.  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  this  grape  is 
related  to,  but  not  identical  with,  the  oblong,  seedless  grape  which 
is  grown  around  Damascus  in  Asia  Minor,  and  there  dried  into  a  raisin 
of  very  good  quality.  This  Damascus  grape  is  brownish  when  ripe. 
Thompson  Seedless  is  an  oval  grape,  greenish  yellow,  as  large  as  a 
Sultana,  seedless,  with  thin  skin,  good  but  not  strong  flavor,  and 
without  that  acid  which  characterizes  the  Sultana  grape  and  raisin. 
The  bunches  are  large,  or  very  large,  and  the  vine  is  an  enormous 
bearer.  As  yet  it  is  principally  grown  around  Yuba  City  and 
Marysville  in  limited  quantities,  but  the  raisins  are  in  good  demand. 
When  sun-dried  and  cured,  these  raisins  are  bluish  and  dark  like 
Muscats,  but  narrower  and  more  tapering,  and  only  a  quarter  the 
size.  "  Their  sjveetness  and  taste  commend  them  for  cooking  purposes, 
and  the  bearing  quality  of  the  vine  will  no  doubt  make  their  growing 
profitable  in  all  places  where  the  seasons  are  too  short  to  thoroughly 
ripen  the  Sultana.  In  Yuba  this  grape  ripens  early  in  August. 

Other  Seedless  Grapes. — In '  the  Islands  of  Lipari  and  Pantelleria  a 
coarse  but  seedless  grape  is  grown,  out  of  which  a  variety  of  Sultana 
raisin  is  made.  We  have  no  further  notices  and  description  of  this 
variety. 

Malaga. — This  is  not  a  real -raisin  grape,  but  of  late  years  raisins 
have  been  made  from  it  and  found  both  fair  in  quality  and  profitable 
to  the  grower.  The  Malaga  is  a  heavy  bearer  of  one  crop  of  very 
large  but  loose  bunches.  There  is  no  second  crop.  The  berries  are 
large,  oval,  not  tapering,  the  flesh  is  meaty  and  solid,  very  sweet,  but 
with  no  decided  flavor.  The  skin  is  thick  and  green,  when  ripe 
amber  yellow,  with  thick  bloom.  Raisins  made  of  this  grape  are  very 
large,  and  the  bunches  are  also  large  and  solid,  and  the  berries  are  not 
easily  torn  off.  When  sweated,  the  skin  becomes  thinner,  and  the 
quality  improves  generally.  The  Malaga  is  a  very  hardy  vine,  not 
particular  about  soil,  a  strong  grower,  bears  well,  and  its  grapes  ripen 
at  the  time  of  the  Muscats.  But,  as  there  is  no  second  crop,  the 
vintage  of  the  Malaga  will  be  over  long  before  that  of  the  Muscats, 
and  out  of  the  way  of  rain  or  fog.  This  is  what  makes  this  grape  so 
valuable.  Four  cents  per  pound  has  been  paid  for  these  raisins  in 
sweatboxes  for  the  past  two  years,  and  at  that  price  this  grape  pays 


92  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

better  than  the  Muscats.  The  Malaga  raisins  are  also  very  heavy  and 
solid.  I  am  satisfied  that  there  will  be  a  good  demand  for  this  raisin, 
especially  among  consumers,  who  prefer  a  bunch  raisin,  but  who 
do  not  care  to  pay  for  the  expensive  packing  which  is  necessary  to 
preserve  the  Muscat  bunches.  The  Malaga  raisin  could  be  sold  in  bulk, 
and  still  would  not  break  up.  The  Malaga  grape  is  grown  in  many 
places  in  California,  and  is  used  principally  as  a  table  grape;  it 
has  only  been  cured  and  dried  into  raisins  in  Fresno.  According  to 
A.  B.  Butler,  this  grape  is  grown  in  Malaga  for  table  purposes. 

Feher  Szagos. — Feher  Szagos  raisins  have  been  in  the  market  for 
several  years,  and  have  brought  in  sweatboxes  from  three  to  three  and 
a  half  cents  per  pound.  This  grape  is  a  heavy  bearer  and  grower, 
branches  erect  but  slender,  leaves  glossy,  entire,  bunches  medium  to 
small,  pointed  and  solid.  The  berries  are  greenish  amber,  medium, 
oval,  pointed,  with  thin  skin,  and  few  and  small  seeds.  The  flesh  is 
not  firm,  but  dries  well,  and  when  dried  the  raisin  is  very  good,  with 
a  peculiar  flavor  of  its  own.  They  are  only  used  for  cooking,  but  are 
nevertheless  rather  good  raisins  to  eat,  and  their  seeds  are  so  soft  that 
they  are  not  objectionable.  The  bearing  quality  of  the  Feher  Szagos 
is  very  heavy,  as  much  as  sixteen  tons  of  green  grapes  having  been 
raised  to  the  acre,  and  from  ten  to  twelve  tons  is  a  common  yield.  It 
ripens  with  the  Muscat,  and  the  vine  bears  only  one  crop.  At  three 
cents  per  pound,  the  Feher  Szagos  is  a  profitable  grape.  The  native 
home  of  this  variety  is  Hungary  or  Southern  Austria,  the  name 
meaning,  in  Hungarian,  White  Jack.  In  Fresno  it  is  grown  quite 
extensively,  having  originally  been  planted  as  a  wine  grape.  As  such 
it  is  highly  valued,  producing  an  abundance  of  highly  flavored  sherry. 

Other  Raisin  Grapes. — In  Asia  Minor,  the  Grecian  Islands,  Morea, 
Italy,  Spain  and  Morocco,  there  are  grown  a  number  of  varieties  of 
grapes  which  are  cured  into  raisins  and  sold  as  such.  Many  of  these 
are  little,  if  any,  better  than  our  dried  grapes,  while  others  again  are 
superior,  more  resembling  the  regular  raisins.  Among  the  latter  we 
have  the  Spanish  Black  and  Red,  and  the  Smyrna  and  Turkish  Black 
and  Red.  Some  of  them  belong  to  the  Muscat  family,  probably  resem- 
bling Black  and  Red  Muscats,  but  of  these  varieties  we  have  no 
particular  information,  and  our  growers  will  probably  not  lose  much 
by  avoiding  a  more  intimate  acquaintance  with  them. 


DISEASES  AND  INSECT  PESTS. 

The  following  short  account  of  the  diseases  and  insect  pests  is  not  intended  to  be  exhaustive, 
and  is  only  intended  to  refer  to  the  raisin  districts  of  our  State.  I  have  not  included  accounts  of 
the  phylloxera  nor  of  other  insects  or  fungi  which  do  not  exist  in  these  districts,  but  which  may 
be  troublesome  in  other  parts  of  the  State.  Strictly  scientific  descriptions  have  purposely  been 
left  out,  but  I  have  endeavored  to  make  the  popular  account  as  correct  and  as  condensed  as 
possible.  Of  insects  and  fungi  I  have  only  enumerated  those  which  are  of  importance  through 
the  damage  they  occasion  from  time  to  time.  Those  which  prey  on  the  vines,  but  which  cause  no 
great  damage,  and  which  the  grower  need  not  prepare  himself  to  fight,  have  here  been  left  out 

POWDERY  MILDEW  OR  UNCINULA. 

General  Notes. — This  disease  of  the  grapevine  is  caused  by  the 
growth  of  parasitic  fungus  known  in  Europe  as  Oidium  Tuckeri^ 
and  in  this  country  as  Uncinula  spiralis  or  powdery  mildew.  I  am 
satisfied  the  two  names  signify  the  same  fungus,  only  the  European 
form  has  never  been  found  as  highly  developed  as  the  American  one, 
which  has  on  that  account  received  a  name  of  its  own.  If  the  two  are 
identical,  then  the  European  Oidium,  which  for  many  years  caused 
the  destruction  of  the  transatlantic  vineyards,  was  imported  to  that 
country  from  this.  The  Uncinula  spiralis  is  undoubtedly  native  on 
our  indigenous  vines. 

Characteristics. — The  mildew  appears  in  two  different  stages,  one  in 
the  spring  when  the  vines  are  in  blossom,  the  other  again  later  in  the 
summer  when  the  fruit  is  more  advanced.  The  first  stage  of  the 
mildew  resembles  a  fine  cobweb  spun  between  the  flowers  of  the  bunch. 
If  allowed  unrestricted  sway,  the  flowers  will  drop  off,  the  fruit  will 
never  set,  or  set  only  imperfectly,  and  the  crop  will  be  a  great  loss  or 
even  a  total  failure.  Generally  the  inexperienced  vineyardist  does  not 
perceive  the  mildew  until  too  late.  A  slight  touch  to  the  vine  will 
then  bring  down  all  the  young  fruit  or  blossoms  like  a  shower,  and 
the  stem  of  the  bunch  will  be  seen  tp  be  entirely  bare,  or  with  only  a 
few  scattered  berries.  This  form  of  the  Uncinula  mildew  has  not 
been  as  scientifically  investigated  as  would  be  desirable,  and  nothing 
is  known  as  regards  its  development  It  is  possibly  a  primary  genera- 
tion and  early  stage  of  the  later  Uncinula.  I  believe  this  form  of 
the  mildew  is  identical  with  the  disease  which  is  called  Colure  by  the 
French,  and  which  is  characterized  by  the  dropping  of  the  young, 
undeveloped  grapes.  The  first  appearance  of  this  mildew  is  always 
accompanied  by  white,  salty  excrescences  on  the  edges  of  the  grape 
leaves.  Whether  they  are  directly  or  indirectly  connected  with  the 
fungus  is  not  known. 

The  later  form,  the  powdery  mildew,  and  the  form  which  has  given 
this  mildew  its  name,  appears  later  in  the  season,  when  the  grapes  are 
half  grown  or  more.  It  then  takes  the  shape  of  fine  powder-like 
patches  or  blotches  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves,  stems  or  berries. 
These  spots  are  of  a  dull  gray  or  whitish  gray  color,  and  smell  strongly 
of  mold  or  mushrooms.  If  these  mildew  spots  when  young  are 


94  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

rubbed  smooth,  especially  on  the  green  stems  or  berries,  we  see  below 
them,  in  the  epidermis  of  the  vine,  the  mycelium  or  stem  of  the  fungus 
spreading  in  all  directions  from  a  central  point,  like  the  roots  of  a  tree 
or  plant.  This  part  of  the  mildew  corresponds  with  the  stem  and  root 
of  a  plant,  while  the  upper,  powdery  part  is  the  one  which  produces 
the  spores  or  the  seed,  conidia  and  peritheca,  all  of  which  are  repro- 
ductive organs.  The  grapes  thus  attacked  gradually  dry  up  or  crack 
open.  The  leaves  are  eaten  through  and  dry  up,  and  the  whole  plant 
becomes  badly  diseased,  and  may  even  die. 


Powdery  Mildew  (Oidium  Form),  Greatly  Magnified. 

History  and  Distribution. — The  powdery  mildew  or  Oidium  was 
observed  for  the  first  time  in  the  year  1845  in  hothouses  in  England.  It 
immediately  began  to  spread,  and  in  a  few  years  infested  all  the  vine 
districts  of  the  Old  World.  Before  any  remedy  had  been  discovered, 
many  vine  districts  were  so  injured  that  they  have  not  since  been  able 
to  recover.  Thus  in  1850  and  1851  France  suffered  greatly  from  this 
mildew,  and  the  Island  of  Madeira,  which  for  three  hundred  years  had 
produced  the  finest  wines,  had  its  grapevines  so  injured  that  they  up  to 
this  time  have  not  again  produced  as  good  a  quality  of  grapes  as  before 
the  advent  of  the  disease.  The  Grecian  Islands  as  well  as  Morea  were 
also  visited  by  the  powdery  mildew,  and  though  the  latter  is  now  kept 
in  control,  the  general  opinion  is  that  the  quality  of  the  currants  is 
not  as  high  as  it  was  before  the  mildew  appeared.  Now  there  is 
probably  no  place  in  the  Old  World  where  grapes  are  not  attacked  by 
this  mildew,  although  some  places  are  injured  much  more  than  others. 
Adjoining  vineyards  are  often  differently  attacked,  some  being  even 
entirely  free,  while  others  are  visited  yearly.  Young  vines  are  less 
attacked  than  old  ones,  and  in  favorable, places  the  mildew  seldom 
infests  vines  before  they  are  two  or  three  years  old.  Elevated  places 
and  localities  exposed  to  winds  and  cold  are  generally  attacked  by  the 
first  stages  of  this  oidium,  while  its  second  or  last  stage  prefers  low, 
damp  places  exposed  to  dew  or  fog. 

The  American  form  of  the  powdery  mildew  or  Undnula  spiralis  differs 
in  some  respects  from  the  European  Oidium,  not  as  to  its  effects,  but 
as  to  its  microscopical  characteristics.  The  Oidium  occurs  in  Europe 
only  with  certain  generative  organs  called  gonidia,  while  the  American 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  95 

Untinula  also  develops  so-called  peritheca.  It  is  more  than  probable 
that  both  fungi  belong  to  the  same  species,  but  until  these  perithecal 
organs  have  been  found  on  the  European  Oidium,  the  proper  name  for 
our  mildew  must  be  Untinula,  and  not  Oidium.  It  is  also  probable 
that  the  Untinula  fungus  is  a  native  of  this  continent,  and  that  it  from 
here  has  spread  to  Europe,  where  the  natural  conditions  are  such  that 
only  the  gonidial  form  of  the  fungus  has  been  able  to  develop.  In 
general  appearance  and  in  their  effects  the  Untinula  and  Oidium  are 
identical. 

The  Oidium  appears  sooner  on  poor  soil  and  on  exhausted  vines,  and 
vines  in  which  the  flow  of  the  sap  for  some  reason  or  other  has  been 
checked  are  more  subject  to  the  mildew  than  those  which  are  yet 
in  full  growing  vigor.  Elevated  vines  on  trellises  which  are  much 
exposed,  and  vines  which  are  so  covered  up  that  the  air  has  little  access, 
are  the  first  ones  to  be  attacked,  and  those  which  will  suffer  the  most. 
The  powdery  mildew  affects  all  varieties  of  grapes,  but  some  kinds 
more  than  others.  The  Muscats  are  among  those  which  suffer  consid- 
erably, and  if  not  sulphured  would  in  severe  cases  neither  set  nor 
bear  suitable  grapes.  The  Malaga  is  less  affected,  and  so  is  the  Sul- 
tana. In  new  districts  the  Uncinula  does  not  appear  until  the  vines  are 
older.  Thus  in  the  Fresno  district  the  earliest  vines  did  not  suffer  from 
mildew  until  they  became  five  years  old,  but  now  the  mildew  would  de- 
stroy the  grapes  every  year,  in  case  they  were  not  treated  with  sulphur. 

Remedies.  — The  most  common  and  perhaps  the  best  remedy  is  pow- 
dered sulphur.  The  latter  is  applied  either  with  the  dust  can  or 
"  dredger,"  or  with  bellows.  The  dust  can  is  used  when  the  vines  or 
vine  shoots  are  yet  small,  and  the  bellows  when  the  vines  are  larger. 
The  first  sulphuring  should  be  done  when  the  young  shoots  are  six 
inches  long,  immediately  before  the  bloom,  and  the  second  time  when 
the  berries  are  well  set.  Sulphuring  as  a  regular  vineyard  operation 
will  be  more  fully  discussed  further  on. 

DOWNY  MILDEW  OR   PERONOSPORA. 

General  Notes. — The  downy  mildew  is  a  fungus  known  botanically 
as  Peronospora  mticola.  Its  native  country  is  the  United  States,  but  its 
greatest  damage  is  done  in  Europe.  It  appears  as  white,  downy 
spots-  on  the  underside  of  the  grape  leaves,  which  are  gradually 
destroyed,  and  later  on  attacks  the  berries,  which  shrivel  and  spoil. 
In  California  the  downy  mildew  occurs  frequently  on  wild  native 
grapevines,  but  only  very  rarely  on  the  cultivated  Asiatic  vines. 
Dr.  H.  W.  Harkness,  the  eminent  mycologist,  found  it  only  once  on 
cultivated  vines  in  the  Sacramento  river  bottom.  These  vines  were 
growing  close  to  native  vines,  from  which  the  fungus  had  spread. 
There  is  no  fear  that  this  fungus  will  ever  spread  and  cause  damage  in 
our  State  as  long  as  the  vineyards  are  given  plenty  of  air.  In  France 
the  Peronospora  has  caused  much  damage,  but  is  now  being  com- 
bated with  bluestone  and  lime  solutions,  according  to  the  follow- 
ing formula:  Slake  thirty  pounds  of  lime  in  seven  and  a  half  gallons 
of  water,  also  mix  sixteen  pounds  of  bluestone  (copper  sulphate)  in 
twenty-five  gallons  of  water.  Mix  the  two  together,  and  either  sprinkle 


96 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 


the  foliage  with  it,  or  dilute  it  further  with  say  five  hundred  gallons  of 
water  and  spray  the  vine  leaves  on  both  the  upper  and  lower  sides. 
According  to  Dr.  Harkness  the  efficiency  of  this  spray  cannot  always 
be  relied  on.  So  far  no  other  fungi  have  appeared  in  the  raisin  districts 
of  this  State,  nor  have  we  reason  to  fear  that  any  will  attack  the  vines. 


Downy  Mildew  f/fcromw^wxj,  Greatly  Magnified,    a.  The  Fungus  Growing  out  of  a  Stoma 

of  the  Vine  Leaf.    c.   Transversal  Section  of  Vine  Leaf,  showing  Fungi 

and  its  Tuberous  Mycelium. 

THE  VINE  PLAGUE. 

Characteristics. — The  first,  or  at  least  the  most  characteristic  signs 
of  this  disease  appear  especially  after  a  summer  rain,  or  after  the  first 
fall  rain.  The  leaves  then  become  spotted  with  yellow.  The  fol- 
lowing season  these  yellow  spots  appear  as  if  fused  together,  and 
many  leaves  become  entirely  yellow,  except  the  veins,  which  stand  out 
bright  green.  Some  leaves  are  invaded  by  the  yellow  from  the  edges, 
while  the  veins  as  before  remain  green.  These  yellow  spots  soon  turn 
brown,  the  leaves  dry  up  and  curl  slightly  backwards  and  finally  fall 
off,  leaving  the  canes  bare.  During  the  very  first  appearance  of  the 
vine  plague,  many  leaves  turn  b'rown  and  dry  up  in  certain  spots  in  the 
vineyard  without  the  previous  appearance  of  any  yellow  spots.  The 
drying  of  the  leaves  proceeds  either  from  the  center  of  the  spots,  or 
from  the  margin  of  the  leaves,  destroying  both  the  leaves  and  their 
veins.  Later  on  in  the  fall  a  new  crop  of  leaves  appear,  but  these 
leaves  are  small  or  very  small,  bright  green  and  sickly,  and  do  not 
continue  to  develop  after  they  have  reached  a  certain  size,  different  in 
different  vines.  In  red  varieties  of  grapes,  the  yellow  spots  in  the 
leaves  gradually  turn  red  or  claret  colored,  often  resembling  the  most 
beautiful  autumn  leaves.  In  districts  where  the  disease  is  common, 
these  leaves  are  generally  known  as  calico  leaves  on  account  of  their 
peculiar  markings. 

The  canes  do  not  attain  their  regular  growth,  and  fail  to  mature  in 
the  fall,  or  mature  only  in  spots,  the  balance  of  the  wood  remaining 
dull  green.  The  inner  parts  of  the  canes  are,  as  a  rule,  more  mature 
than  the  tips.  Very  often  only  one  or  two  joints  nearest  the  stem 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  97 

mature,  and  in  bad  cases  no  part  of  the  canes  mature,  but  at  the 
advent  of  the  rain  turn  black  and  die.  Late  in  the  fall  the  tips  of  the 
green  canes  turn  black,  dry  up  and  snap  off  like  glass  when  touched. 
The  pith  turns  in  the  older  canes  dark  brown,  dries  up  prematurely  and 
dies,  while  in  very  young  canes  the  pith  remains  watery  like  a  semi- 
transparent  jelly. 

Many  vines  have  no  mature  wood  when  the  leaves  have  fallen  in  the 
autumn,  while  others  again  have  some.  While  the  spotted  leaves  may 
appear  all  over  the  vineyard,  the  diseased  canes  appear  on  vines  in 
spots,  these  spots  in  the  vineyard  growing  larger  year  after  year. 
A  dead  vine  may  be  seen  in  the  midst  of  healthy  ones,  while  a  healthy 
vine,  on  the  other  hand,  may  remain  in  the  midst  of  dead  ones.  It  takes 
generally  several  years  to  kill  the  vines,  and  some  varieties  are  hardier 
than  others.  Some  Muscats  .may  succumb  in  one  year,  while  some 
will  last  for  three  years  or  more.  The  roots  remain  alive  and  healthy 
longer  than  any  other  part,  and,  when  the  top  of  the  vine  has  already 
died,  it  is  common  to  see  the  root  send  up  a  healthy  sucker,  which, 
however,  in  its  turn,  will  become  diseased  -and  die.  It  is  likely  that 
the  vines  in  some  districts  will  suffer  more  than  in  others,  and  in  places 
the  vines  may  not  become  seriously  injured  by  the  disease. 

The  berries  on  badly  diseased  vines  do  not  develop,  but  shrivel  up 
or  remain  sour,  and  in  some  cases  dry  up  entirely.  In  others,  again, 
they  acquire  a  mawkish  taste,  lose  flavor  and  sweetness,  and  make 
only  inferior  or  bad  raisins.  These  many  different  characteristics  of 
the  plague  depend  evidently  on  the  stage  of  infection.  They  do  not 
follow  each  other  in  any  certain  succession,  nor  do  they  all  appear  on 
the  same  vine.  Some  vines  show  one  face  of  the  disease,  other  vines 
show  another,  and  the  observer  must  have  been  previously  acquainted 
with  the  disease  before  he  can  readily  recognize  it. 

Nature  and  Cause. — The  cause  of  the  vine  plague  is  not  known. 
No  deadly  fungus  has  so  far  been  found  on  the  vine,  nor  has  any  other 
deadly  parasite  been  found  on  the  diseased  vines.  In  California  the  vine 
plague  has  been  studied  by  N.  B.  Pierce,  of  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment at  Washington.  He  suggested  once  that  the  disease  was  of 
bacterial  nature,  but  has  not  proved  his  theory,  his  investigations  not 
yet  being  finished.  Mr.  K.  Dowlen  has  also  been  investigating  this 
disease,  and  at  one  time  thought  it  caused  by  a  fungus,  which,  how- 
ever, was  proved  later  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Harkness  to  belong  to  the  non- 
injurious  kind.  No  insects  of  any  kind  prey  on  the  vines  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  cause  the  serious  symptoms  of  the  vine  plague.*  Whatever 
may  be  the  true  cause  of  the  vine  plague,  certain  it  is  that  it  resembles 
in  its  advent  and  spreading  such  diseases  in  men  as  cholera,  yellow 
fever  or  the  Oriental  plague.  The  vine  plague  appears  to  be  especially 
promoted  by  warm,  moist  air  and  rain,  but  it  is  not  confined  to  damp 
places,  nor  has  it  as  yet  been  ascertained  in  what  relation  it  stands  to 
locality  and  climate. 

*The  most  interesting  and  correct  account  of  the  vine  plague  yet  published  is 
found  in  an  essay  on  "The  Mysterious  Vine  Disease,"  by  Newton  B.  Pierce,  read 
before  the  State  Horticultural  Convention,  at  Los  Angeles,  March,  1890,  and  pub- 
lished in  CALIFORNIA — A  JOURNAL  OF  RURAL  INDUSTRY,  May  10,  1890 ;  Vol.  3, 
No.  1 8. 


98  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

In  California  it  first  made  its  general  appearance  in  Anaheim  in 
Orange  county,  in  the  month  of  August,  1884,  when  vineyards  of  old 
Mission  vines  suddenly  stopped  growing,  and  the  grapes  failed  to  color 
and  ripen,  while  many  of  the  vines  died  the  same  year.  The  plague 
attacks  in  preference  vines  growing  on  poor,  sandy  or  alkaline  soil,  or 
in  vineyards  underlaid  with  hardpan.  The  weak  vines  succumb  the 
first  of  any.  This  is  the  reason  why  so  many  vineyardists  doubt  the 
existence  of  any  particular  disease,  contributing  the  poor  condition 
of  the  vineyard  to  anything  else  than  the  true  cause. 

N.  B.  Pierce,  who  has  now  spent  a  year  in  studying  the  vine  plague, 
has  found  many  similarities  between  it  and  the  mat  nero  of  Italy;  but 
the  descriptions  of  the  foreign  investigators  are  both  contradictory  and 
insufficient,  and,  without  a  personal  investigation  of  the  Italian  or 
French  vises,  the  identity  of  our  vine  plague  with  any  foreign  disease 
cannot  be  established.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  United  States  Con- 
gress will  make  such  investigations  possible.  At  present  we  do  not  even 
know  whether  the  vine  plague  is  original  in  this  country  or  whether  it 
was  imported  from  foreign  countries.  The  general  opinion  in  the  first 
attacked  district  is  that  the  disease  was  imported  there  with  grape- 
vines brought  from  Europe.  So  far  I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain 
when  and  by  whom  such  vines  were  imported,  but  I  am  satisfied  that 
in  the  course  of  time  it  will  be  found  that  foreign  grapevines  were 
imported  to  the  vineyards  where  shortly  afterwards  this  disease  first 
appeared. 

Damages. — The  damages  caused  by  the  vine  plague  may  be  summed 
tip  as  follows:  The  leaves  turn  spotted  and  yellow,  finally  dry  up  and 
fall  off.  The  canes  fail  to  mature,  or  mature  only  in  spots.  Later 
in  the  fall,  they  die  from  the  tips,  which  turn  black  and  become 
brittle.  The  berries  either  dry  up  or  shrivel  up,  and  fail  to  mature, 
or  at  any  rate  become  mawkish  or  bitter.  The  yield  becomes  less  and 
less  every  year,  although,  the  first  year  that  the  vines  are  touched  by 
the  disease,  the  yield  is  often  unusually  large.  In  severe  cases  the 
vine  dies  in  from  one  to  three  years,  but  a  few  may  linger  longer. 

Remedies. — The  vine  plague  has  existed  in  this  State  for  six  or  eight 
years,  but  as  yet  few,  if  any,  efforts  have  been  made  to  extinguish  it, 
and  only  during  the  last  year  have  any  experiments  been  carried  on.  The 
solutions  of  bluestone  and  lime  which  many  expected  would  prove 
beneficial  to  the  vines  attacked  by  the  plague  have,  in  my  opinion, 
done  little  or  no  good.  Spraying  the  vines  when  in  full  foliage  with 
the  I  X  Iy  compound  greatly  benefits  the  vines,  and  proves  a  powerful 
stimulant  and  the  best  remedy  yet  employed. 

LEAF-HOPPER  (Erythronetira  comes). 

Characteristics. — This  -pernicious  little  pest  is  a  bug  which  multiplies 
in  enormous  quantities  and  sucks  the  sap  out  of  the  vine  leaves. 
Many  use  the  name  of  thrips  to  denote  this  insect,  but  this  is  incor- 
rect, as  the  thrips  is  an  entirely  different,  much  smaller,  insect,  which 
so  far  has  never  been  injurious  to  the  vines  of  this  coast.  In  size  the 
leaf-hopper  is,  at  maturity,  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch.  In  color  it  is 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  99 

yellowish  white,  with  a  few  red  spots.  When  the  insect  approaches 
maturity,  it  jumps,  but  the  undeveloped  insect  or  larva  only  crawls, 
principally  on  the  underside  of  the  vine  leaves,  where  their  cast-off 
skins  can  be  seen  in  all  stages  and  sizes.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
the  veins  of  the  leaves.  The  glossy  globules  which  are  always  seen 
on  leaves  where  the  leaf-hopper  is  found  are  not  the  eggs,  as  has 
been  supposed  by  many,  but  is  only  the  vomit  which,  when  irri- 
tated, the  hopper  throws  out  either  as  a  defense,  or  because  it 
desires  to  rid  itself  of  an  unnecessary  burden.  The  leaf-hopper 
hatches  at  least  two  times,  or  possibly  three  times,  during  the  sum- 
mer. Many  of  the  insects  remain  over  during  winter  time.  They 
feed  on  almost  anything,  such  as  alfilerilla  (Erodium)^  etc.,  but  are 
especially  fond  of  the  grapevines,  and  even  in  the  early  spring  flock 
onto  the  young  vine  shoots,  leaving  the  less  desirable  weeds.  In  some 
localities  this  insect  is  known  variously  as  the  white  fly,  the  vine-hop- 
per, or  incorrectly  as  the  thrips. 

Damages. — The  hopper  punctures  the  leaves  and  causes  them  to  dry 
up  and  fall,  thus  exposing  the  grapes  to  the  hot  sun.  The  excrement 
of  the  hoppers  also  covers  the  grapes  largely,  and  spoils  their  appear- 
ance and  keeping  quality,  at  least  as  table  grapes.  It  is  principally 
the  table  grapes  and  wine  grapes  which  are  injured  by  this  insect;  the 
former  are  made  unfit  for  shipment,  and  the  latter  do  not  color  well 
when  deprived  of  their  leaves.  If  the  grapevines  are  kept  growing, 
the  grapes  are  less  injured,  and  some  growers  even  contend  that  the 
hopper  is  advantageous,  as  it  causes  the  leaves  to  fall  and  the  grapes 
to  mature. 

Distribution. — It  is  not  known  whether  the  leaf-hopper  is  a  native 
of  California,  and  I  hardly  believe  it  is.  It  does  not  exist  in  Southern 
California,  but  in  Northern  California  and  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley 
it  is  common.  In  the  grape  districts  of  Southern  California  there  is 
found  another  variety  of  leaf-hopper  almost  twice  the  size  and  of  a 
brilliant  green  color,  which  only  once  appeared  in  such  quantity  as  to 
do  any  damage  at  all.  Generally  it  is  quite  rare.  The  Erythroneura 
comes,  however,  occurs  in  countless  numbers,  and  often  rises  in  clouds 
when  the  vines  are  approached.  Irl  some  years  it  is  less  common  than 
in  others,  and  after  having  been  plentiful  for  several  years  gradually 
diminishes  in  quantity,  but  never  disappears  entirely. 

Remedies. — Pasturing  the  vineyards  with  sheep  as  soon  as  the  grapes 
are  picked  is  very  beneficial.  The  sheep  destroy  both  hoppers  and 
leaves,  and  the  following  season  always  finds  the  hoppers  greatly 
diminished  in  numbers.  The  sheep  do  no  injury  to  low-pruned  vines, 
and  in  Fresno  many  vineyardists  pasture  their  vines  regularly  every 
year  in  October  and  November,  or  as  soon  as  the  grapes  are  picked 
and  the  vineyards  are  made  accessible. 

The  gauze  bell  consists  of  a  bell-shaped  cover  made  of  wire  netting, 
large  enough  to  cover  the  vine.  The  inside  of  the  bell  is  sprayed  with 
petroleum,  and  then  turned  over  the  vine.  A  shake  is  then  given  the 
vine,  when  many  leaf-hoppers  will  fly  up  and  stick  in  the  petroleum. 
It  will  only  pay  to  use  this  remedy  on  table  grapes;  for  raisin  grapes 
it  is  too  expensive. 


100  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

RED   SPIDER. 

Characteristics. — Red  or  yellow  mites  are  quite  frequently  injurious 
to  grapevines.  These  mites  are  small,  almost  microscopical,  and 
appear  in  enormous  quantities  on  both  sides  of  the  leaves,  especially, 
however,  on  their  under  side.  They  cover  the  leaves,  and  even  the 
ground  of  the  vineyard,  with  a  thick  cobweb,  in  which  they  live  and 
hatch.  Dry  air  and  heat  promote  the  wellbeing  of  the  mites,  and 
hasten  the  injury  they  do  to  the  vine  leaves,  which  soon  dry  up  and 
check  the  growth  of  the  vines.  On  the  contrary,  dew  and  moisture 
destroy  the  red  mites  in  a  short  time,  and  in  places  near  the  coast  they 
are  seldom  very  injurious. 

Remedies. — Sprays  of  various  kinds,  such  as  whale-oil  soap,  resin 
sprays,  etc.,  have  been  used.  Frequent  spraying  with  pure  water 
will  destroy  the  mites,  but  they  will  multiply  again  if  the  climate 
is  favorable.  The  best  success  is  had  with  a  spray  of  a  compound 
known  as  the  I  X  I/  compound,  which  is  used  in  the  proportion  of 
five  pounds  of  the  compound  to  thirty  gallons  of  water.  One  good 
spray  will  destroy  both  the  mites  and  their  eggs. 

CATERPILLARS. 

Characteristics. — The  caterpillars  which  trouble  the  raisin  grapes  are 
confined  to  three  or  four  kinds.  The  most  common  and  also  the  most 
destructive  are  the  very  large  larvae  of  the  sphinx  moth.  The  com- 
mon grapevine  sphinx  (Philampelus  ach&moii)  is  a  large  larva,  incor- 
rectly, called  a  worm,  which  is,  when  full  grown,  over  three  inches 
long.  The  color  varies  from  bluish  green  to  brown,  with  several 
lighter  stripes  on  each  side.  The  head  is  truncate,  and  the  tail  is 
furnished  with  a  curved  horn.  The  pupa  hibernates  in  the  soil  below  the 
vines,  and  is  about  half  the  size  of  the  full-grown  caterpillar.  The  full- 
grown  moth  is  about  two  inches  long  by  two  and  one-half  inches 
between  the  outstretched  wings.  The  eggs  are  laid  by  the  moths  on 
the  leaves  of  the  vines.  Two  broods  of  caterpillars  appear  yearly 
under  favorable  conditions,  or  else  only  one  brood,  which  genera.ly 
appears  in  the  end  of  July.  The  caterpillars  grow  with  great  rapidity, 
and  attain  their  full  size  in  a  few  weeks.  The  pupcz  hibernate  in  the 
soil  and  hatch  the  following  summer. 

Another  large  grapevine  caterpillar  is  the  Deilephila  striata,  which 
is  about  the  same  size  as  the  Ach&mon.  The  moth  has  more  pointed 
wings,  with  narrow  stripes,  and  the  larva  is  brighter  colored,  often 
yellowish  green,  with  several  colored  stripes  on  the  sides.  The  eggs 
are  not  laid  on  the  vines,  but  on  the  weeds,on  the  vacant  lands  outside 
the  vineyard,  especially  on  species  of  Ep&obium,  but  also  on  other 
weeds,  and  they  hatch  and  feed  on  them.  The  caterpillars  feed  in 
ordinary  years  only  on  the  weeds  on  which  they  are  bred,  but  in  other 
years  which  are  especially  favorable  to  their  enormous  increase  they 
migrate  to  the  vineyards  and  feed  on  the  vines  at  the  most  alarming 
rate.  The  caterpillars  of  both  the  above  large  moths  vary  in  color 
from  green  to  brown  or  violet  brown,  but  as  a  rule  the  Deilephila  is 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  101 

more  brightly  colored  than  the  Achcemon.  The  former  is  more  active 
and  often  travels  in  enormous  numbers,  when  it  is  called  the  army- 
worm.  The  Ach&mon  is  more  blunt  at  both  extremities,  the  head 
being  almost  truncate. 

Army-worms  are  smaller  caterpillars,  about  one  inch  or  more  in 
length,  which  breed  on  the  outside  weeds,  and  which,  when  feed  be- 
comes scarce,  migrate  to  the  vineyards  and  feed  on  the  vines.  These 
caterpillars  are  the  larvae  of  smaller  moths  of  various  genera  such  as 
Prodenia  and  others. 

Cutworms  are  other  caterpillars  of  moths  of  the  genus  Agrotis,  which 
feed  on  the  branches  of  the  vines,  especially  in  the  night-time,  and  in 
the  daytime  bury  themselves  in  the  soil  beneath  the  vine.  They  are 
generally  a  gray  or  leathery  color,  while  the  army-worms  are  more 
violet  and  darker. 

Damages. — The  damages  from  these  various  caterpillars  are  some- 
times very  large.  Some  years  they  occur  in  enormous  quantities,  and 
hundreds  of  tons  of  them  may  then  be  packed  from  a  vineyard  of  a 
hundred  acres  of  vines.  The  leaves  are  eaten  by  them,  and  the  grapes 
are  either  scalded  by  the  sun  or  do  not  attain  their  sweetness  and 
coloring.  Sometimes  these  various  caterpillars  are  very  common  and 
destructive  for  one  or  two  years  in  succession,  after  which  they  disap- 
pear and  do  not  return  to  trouble  the  vines  again  for  many  years. 

Remedies. — The  great  caterpillars,  after  they  have  once  infested  the 
vineyard,  can  be  destroyed  by  picking.  A  gang  of  men  or  boys  should 
be  furnished  with  buckets,  which  are  besmeared  on  the  inside  with 
coal-oil.  The  caterpillars  are  picked  and  dropped  in  the  buckets,  from 
which  they  cannot  crawl  out,  and  when  the  buckets  are  half  filled  they 
may  be  emptied  into  trenches  and  covered  up  with  soil. 

Many  use  small  scissors,  with  which  the  caterpillars  are  cut  in 
twain  while  sitting  on  the  vines.  This  will  do  for  wine  grapes,  which 
are  grown  higher  above  the  ground,  but  will  hardly  be  proper  on  the 
low  Muscat  vines,  as  the  contents  of  the  caterpillars  are  apt  to  soil  the 
grapes. 

I  have  used  Buhach  sprays  with  ..great  success.  Ten  pounds  of 
Buhach,  with  a  hundred  gallons  of  water,  brought  the  caterpillars 
down  from  the  vines  in  forty-five  minutes  after  spraying.  As  some, 
however,  recovered,  it  is  best  to  kill  as  many  as  possible  of  those 
which  fall  to  the  ground  by  punching  them  with  a  stick.  The  cost  of 
Buhach  is,  however,  great,  and  the  difficulty  of  encountering  favorable 
weather  is  such  that  this  remedy  is  not  apt  to  be  extensively  used. 

When  the  vineyards  are  threatened  by  the  invasion  of  the  army- 
worms,  or  by  the  striped  Deilephila  caterpillar,  the  best  remedy  consists 
in  trenching.  A  narrow  trench,  say  one  foot  or  more  wide  and  two 
feet  deep,  with  perpendicular  sides,  should  immediately  be  dug  around 
the  vineyard.  If  water  is  at  hand,  fill  the  trench  with  water,  on  which 
some  coal-oil  may  be  poured, — enough  to  cause  a  film  on  the  surface. 
If  no  water  can  be  had,  a  log  or  scantling  may  be  continually  dragged 
up  and  down  the  furrow  or  trench,  so  as  to  crush  the  caterpillars  before 
they  can  crawl  out.  In  many  places,  however,  the  trench  alone  will 
do  the  work,  as  the  caterpillars  will  generally  not  be  able  to  get  up  the 


102  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

other  side  of  the  trench.     What  few  crawl  up  can  easily  be  kept  down 
by  hand-picking. 

If  certain  attractive  flowers,  such  as  honey-suckles  or  petunias,  are 
planted  on  a  small  bed  in  the  vineyard,  say  near  the  house,  the  moths 
will  come  to  them  to  feed  from  all  the  surrounding  neighborhood. 
Only  one  small  bed  should  be  planted  on  every  vineyard.  A  boy  with 
a  butterfly  net,  posted  at  each  flower  bed  at  sundown,  can  catch  hun- 
dreds of  moths  every  evening,  and  considerably  reduce  their  number 
and  prevent  them  from  breeding. 

BLACK-KNOT. 

Characteristics. — The  woody  or  spongy  excrescences  which  appear  on 
the  vines,  and  which  are  known  as  black-knots,  are  really  only  a  wart- 
like  growth,  the  origin  of  which  is  entirely  unknown.  It  is  supposed 
that  an  insufficient  outlet  for  the  sap  in  the  spring  caused  by  too 
close  pruning  is  the  chief  cause.  Certainly  closely  pruned  vines  are 
more  subject  to  the  black-kn6t  than  long  pruned  vines,  but  on  the  other 
hand  neglected  vines  which  have  had  no  cultivation,  and  which  accord- 
ingly could  hardly  have  had  too  rapid  a  flow  of  sap,  suffer  more  than 
any  others.  The  woody  warts  appear  quite  frequently  on  the  ends  of  the 
spurs  of  the  old  wood,  or  on  places  of  last  year's  growth  which  have 
been  wounded  or  injured  in  some  way,  but  never  on  the  green  wood. 
They  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  pea  to  that  of  lumps  weighing  several 
pounds.  When  present  in  small  quantities,  the  warts  cause  no  injury, 
but  when  they  become  larger  the  vines  may  even  die.  These  black- 
knots  always  die  with  the  year,  and  never  survive  to  the  next  sea- 
son. At  the  end  of  the  season,  they  burst  open  and  then  often  dis- 
play black  spores  of  fungi,  which,  however,  are  only  parasitical  growths 
on  the  already  decayed  wood,  and  not  the  cause  of  the  disease.  As  I  said, 
it  is  generally  supposed  that  the  flow  of  sap  is  during  spring  time  so 
great  that  it  ruptures  the  cells  of  the  vine  and  causes  the  warts  to 
form.  Under  the  microscope,  however,  there  are  no  such  ruptured  cells 
visible.  It  is  more  natural  to  suppose,  that  through  the  accumula- 
tion of  sap  an  irritating  poison  is  originated,  which  causes  the  warty 
growth  to  form  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  formation  of  galls.  On 
sandy  soil  the  black-knot  is  the  most  common,  probably  on  account  of 
the  earliness  and  the  natural  warmth  of  this  kind  of  soil. 

Remedies. — So  far  no  decidedly  successful  remedy  has  been  found. 
Some  growers  advise  leaving  plenty  of  spurs  on  the  vine,  so  as  to  give 
a  sufficient  outlet  to  the  sap,  but  it  remains  to  be  seen  if  this  will 
mitigate  the  evil.  If  the  black-knot  should  be  very  destructive,  a  cut- 
ting out  of  the  same  in  summer  time  while  they  are  forming  would 
be  beneficial.  This  could  best  be  done  in 'June  and  July.  Mixtures 
of  coal-oil  and  lime,  etc.,  have  been  used  during  the  winter  after  the 
vines  were  already  pruned,  but,  as  the  black-knot  is  then  already  dead, 
no  advantages  can  result  from  this  remedy. 

GRASSHOPPERS. 

General  Notes. — While  grasshoppers  cannot  be  considered  as  a 
common  pest  in  the  vineyard,  still  they  are  at  times  greatly  destructive. 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  103 

There  has  been  during  the  last  sixteen  years  two  such  invasions  of 
grasshoppers  in  the  California  raisin  districts.  The  grasshoppers  are 
of  many  species,  some  seventeen  kinds  having  been  recognized  one 
season.  They  all  breed  in  the  waste  or  unplowed  ground  outside 
the  vineyard,  and  when  full-grown  invade  the  vines.  This  fact  can  be 
taken  advantage  of  to  destroy  them. 

Remedies. — The  waste  lands  for  a  half  mile  at  least  all  around  the 
vineyard  should  be  plowed  and  harrowed  in  the  early  spring.  This 
will  destroy  the  eggs  of  the  grasshoppers,  and  the  fallow  land  will  serve 
as  a  barrier  over  which  the  grasshoppers  do  not  readily  pass. 

If  the  vineyards  are  so  situated  that  the  weeds  or  natural  vegetation 
on  the  land  surrounding  the  vines  can  be  burned  for  half  a  mile  or 
more,  this  will  also  prove  a  certain  barrier  for  the  hoppers. 

A  mixture  of  fifteen  pounds  of  white  arsenic  with  eighty  pounds  of 
bran  and  twenty  pounds  of  middlings,  moistened  with  enough  water 
to  make  a  paste,  will  be  eaten  by  the  grasshoppers.  The  paste  is 
spread  on  bits  of  shakes  or  shingles  and  distributed  all  around  the 
vineyard,  and  later  on  in  the  vineyard.  It  may  also  be  smeared  on 
fences  or  trees.  The  grasshoppers  will  eat  it  readily,  and  can  thus  be 
successfully  destroyed.  If  this  method  is  used  in  time,  the  advancing 
army  of  the  pest  can  be  kept  back  or  destroyed  at  the  very  entrance  of 
the  vineyard.  As  another  remedy,  a  spray  is  recommended  consisting 
of  one  ounce  of  Paris  green,  one  hundred  gallons  of  water,  and  two 
pounds  of  paste.  This  is  sprayed  on  the  trees  or  vines,  and  is  said  to 
kill  the  grasshoppers  effectively  without  injuring  the  fruit. 


THE  RAISIN  VINEYARD. 

PLANTING. 

Distances  for  Muscat  Vines.-^-An  examination  of  the  various  vine- 
yards in  any  or  in  all  the  different  raisin  districts  will  not  help  us 
much  in  deciding  upon  how  far  apart  the  vines  should  be  set,  as  most 

.vineyards  have  been  planted  by  men  of  110  previous  experience  in  the 
raisin  business,  and  when  that  experience  was  at  last  acquired  the 
vineyards  were  already  established  and  could  not  easily  be  changed. 
In  planting,  we  are  too  apt  to  do  as  other  people  do  without  first 
inquiring  from  them  if  their  experience  has  not  taught  them  anything 
else,  and  if  they  would  not  do  otherwise  if  they  had  to  commence  over 
again.  For  years  the  standard,  distances  between  raisin-vines  have 
been  eight  by  eightjeet.  Of  late  years  this  distance  was  considered 
too  small,  as  our  soil  was  supposed  to  be  so  rich,  that  all  that  was 
required,  in  order  to  get  large  crops,  was  to  give  the  vines  plenty  of 
room.  Many  vineyards  have  been  set  nine  by  nine,  nine  by  ten,  ten 
by  ten,  or  even  ten  by  twelve  and  twelve  by  sixteen  feet.  The  effect 
has,  however,  been  different  from  that  which  was  expected.  Instead 
of  producing  larger  crops,  those  vines  which  were  given  more  room 
produced  only  more  wood  and  more  leaves.  They  followed  that  law 
of  nature,  which  causes  any  animal  or  vegetable  to  grow  luxuriantly 
when  overfed,  and  which,  on  the  contrary,  causes  seed  and  fruit  to 
form  when  the  vegetable  system  is  restricted  to  certain  proportions, 
which,  of  course,  we  can  only  determine  by  actual  experience.  By  giving 
the  vines  less  space,  some  inconvenience  will  be  experienced  in  working 
the  soil,  and  in  drying  the  crop  between  the  rows.  On  that  account 
some  vineyards  have  been  planted  with  the  vines  closer  one  way  than 
the  other,  thus  giving  plenty  of  room  in  which  to  work  the  soil,  while 
on  the  other  hand  sufficiently  confining  the  vines  in  order  to  cause 
them  to  bear  well.  I  therefore  now  recommend  that  the  vines  be  set 
four  and  a  half  by  eleven,  five  by  ten  and  a  half,  or  five  by  eleven  feet. 
The  first  would  probably  be  my  choice.  I  claim  for  this  system  many 
advantages,  and  beg  intending  growers  to  carefully  consider  the  follow- 
ing points: 

It  gives  us  more  vines  to  the  acre,  which  means  more  grapes  to  the 
acre,  as  long  as  the  land  is  of  the  best  quality,  and  no  raisin  grapes 
should  ever  be  planted  on  inferior  soil,  or  at  least  the  soil  should  be 
sufficiently  rich  to  supply  plant  food  to  the  greater  number  of  vines. 

It  makes  the  working  of  the  soil  cheaper,  arid  fully  one-third  more  of 
the  work  can  be  done  by  two-horse  plows.  The  single-horse  work  can 
be  confined  to  plowing  a  furrow  on  each  side  of  the  vines,  and  to  running 
a  cultivator  crosswise.  As  the  number  of  rows  in  this  system  is  less, 
it  also  follows  that  less  single-team  work  is  needed. 

The  vines  protect  themselves  from  the  hot  sun  and  hot  winds  which 
cause  sunscald.  The  short  distances  should  be  in  the  direction  of  the 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  105 

hot  wind,  if  any  there  be,  or  in  the  direction  of  east  and  west  if  there 
are  no  hot  winds  in  the  district.  The  spaces  between  the  rows  will 
thus  catch  the  morning  sun,  which  is  of  importance  when  we  dry  on 
trays  between  the  vines. 

Less  roads  will  be  needed  in  the  vineyard,  as  the  larger  distance  is 
sufficient  to  enable  any  teams  to  pass  between  every  row  of  vines,  and 
distribute  trays,  boxes,  etc. ,  without  interfering  with  the  vines.  The 
saving  thereby  of  labor  in  carrying  the  boxes  and  trays  is  quite  an 
item  in  vineyards  where  the  vines  are  planted  say  eight  by  eight 
feet  or  closer. 


I,a  nd  Scrapers. 


The  trimmings  of  the  vines  can  be  burned  in  the  vineyard  between 
the  rows,  and  will  thus  help  to  fertilize  the  soil.  Besides,  the  expense 
of  hauling  the  trimmings  away  will  be  saved. 

The  Marking  Out  of  a    Vineyard.  —  As  any 


knows  how  to  stake  out  an  orchard  or  vineyard,  a  minute  description 
is  not  here  needed.  I  will  only  indicate  the  most  important  points. 
Cut  a  large  number  of  small  pegs,  one  inch  or  so  square  and  a  foot  or 
so  long.  Next  get  two  lines  of  twisted  wire,  each  say  150  feet  long. 
Mark  off  on  one  wire  every  five  feet  by  inserting  a  small,  bright  copper 
wire  in  the  twist,  and  wind  it  around  the  iron  wire  three  or  four  times, 
enough  to  show  the  place.  On  the  other  wire  mark  off  similarly  every 
ten  or  eleven  feet,  always  supposing  these  are  the  distances  decided 
upon.  Now  stretch  one  of  the  wires  along  one  end  of  the  future  vine- 
yard and  call  this  line  the  base  line  No.  i  .  Set  a  peg  close  to  every 
copper  ringlet,  on  the  side  of  the  wire  away  from  the  vineyard.  When 
done,  stretch  the  other  wire,  No.  2,  at  a  right  angle  with  the  former, 
and  set  pegs  similarly.  Remove  wire  No.  i  from  base  line  No.  i  and 
stretch  it  at  the  end  of  wire  No.  2,  parallel  to  the  base  line.  Call  this 
base  line  No.  2.  Set  pegs  as  before  every  eight  feet.  It  is  now  evident 
that,  by  stretching  successively  the  wire  No.  2  between  the  pegs  set  on 
the  two  base  lines,  and  by  setting  cuttings  or  rooted  vines  close  to  the 


106 


THE     RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 


copper  ringlets  on  the  wire  line,  perfectly  straight  and  even  rows  can 
be  had  in  every  direction. 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  this  work.  Remember  that  the 
vineyard  is  to  last  for  a  lifetime  or  more,  and  that  any  careless  work 
will  ever  be  an  eyesore  and  a  drawback.  Unsightly  vineyards,  care- 
lessly staked  out,  are  never  worth  as  much  as  tEose  carefully  planted, 
where  every  row  is  straight,  and  where  plowing,  cultivating  and  other 
farming  and  vineyard  work  can  be  performed  without  meeting  any 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  crooked  rows,  or  of  vines  standing  out  of  line. 
Only  too  frequently  vineyard  rows  are  plowed  out,  and  the  cuttings 
are  ' '  slapped ' '  in  any  way  in  order  to  get  the  work  quickly  done. 
In  after  years,  when  the  proprietor's  taste  and  experience  has  improved, 
he  finds  that  his  reputation  as  a  careless  or  ignorant  grower  cannot  be 
changed;  for  the  vineyard  is  there  to  last,  and  to  tell  the  tale  of  early 
ignorance  or  neglect. 


14. 


i-a,  b,  c,  d.— Vineyard  Tools  used  in  the  Currant  Vineyards  of  Zante. 

Relative  Value  of  Cuttings  and  Rooted  Vines. — Cuttings  and  rooted 
vines  have  their  advocates,  but  the  majoritj*  of  vineyardists  are  now 
in  favor  of  planting  rooted  vines,  and  I  woulcf  myself  choose  the  latter 
every  time.  As,  however,  rooted  vines  and  cuttings  are  both  likely 
to  be  used  as  long  as  vines  are  planted,  a  few  words  in  regard  to  their 
respective  merits  may  be  of  general  interest.  In  planting  cuttings, 
we  are  never  sure  that  they  will  all  grow.  Cuttings  if  cared  for  gen- 
erally do  well,  but  sometimes,  even  with  good  care,  they  fail,  and  the 
loss  and  annoyance  is  then  always  great,  and  even  in  very  careful 
planting  seldom  over  ninety  per  cent  live,  while  often  twenty -five  per 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  107 

cent  die.  The  reason  is  often  careless  planting,  when  the  season  is 
favorable,  but  in  unfavorable  seasons  the  failure  must  be  attributed  to 
other  causes.  Those  cuttings  which  grow,  generally  grow  well  and 
often  make  as  good  vines  as  those  raised  from  previously  rooted  ones. 

The  replanting  of  the  cuttings  that  failed  to  live  is  both  expensive 
and  troublesome.  Kvery  vineyardist  knows  how  difficult  it  is  to  suc- 
ceed in  making  cuttings,  or  even  vines,  grow  on  places  in  the  vine- 
yard where  other  ones  have  failed  to  grow  before.  Some  attribute  this 
difficulty  to  some  poison  in  the  soil,  but  I  believe  the  cause  will  be 
found  in  the  greater  difficulty  to  attend  to  a  few  young  vines  in  among 
the  older  ones.  The  older  vines  will  naturally  use  up  the  moisture  in 
the  soil,  and  the  cuttings,  with  their  young  and  tender  roots,  will  have 
but  little  chance  in  the  general  struggle  for  life.  But  even  if  we  sup- 
pose that  the  replanted  vines  will  do  equally  well,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  replanting  of  the  cuttings  is  actually  more  expensive  than  the  first 
planting.  The  reason  why  this  is  so  lies  in  the  greater  work  in  get- 
ting the  soil  in  first-class  condition  after  the  first  planting  failed.  In 
the  first  planting,  the  soil  has  been  put  in  order  with  the  help  of 
horses  and  plows,  while,  when  we  replant,  the  very  spots  where  the 
vines  are  to  be  located  cannot  be  reached  by  other  means  than  by  a 
pick  or  shovel,  as,  no  matter  how  well  the  old  vineyard  is  plowed, 
there  will  always  be  a  hard  spot  around  every  vine,  or  around  the 
place  where  the  vine  should  be,  and  where  it  failed  to  grow.  If  only 
a  few  cuttings  have  taken  root,  it  is  better  to  plow  up  the  whole 
vineyard  and  reset,  and  in  so  doing  endeavor  to  do  better  work.  I 
know  of  vineyards  where  the  owners  have  not  succeeded  in  replanting 
during  ten  years,  every  year  spending  money  and  labor  with  little  suc- 
cess. There  will  always  be  a  few  cuttings  that  fail  to  live. 

The  causes  of  the  uncertainty  of  cuttings  are  our  inability  to  foresee 
the  outcome  of  the  season's  climatic  conditions.  More  or  less  rain 
has  a  direct  influence  on  our  success.  Thus  in  very  rainy  seasons  the 
cuttings  should  be  small  or  rather  short,  so  as  to  be  as  much  as  possi- 
ble in  the  upper,  dryer  and  warmer  soil.  In  dry  seasons,  again,  the 
cuttings  should  be  long,  so  as  io  be  in  the  moist  ground,  but  as  we 
can  never  foresee  what  the  season  will  be,  we  had  better  have  a 
recourse  to  rooted  vines,  which,  if  in  good  condition,  will  be  compara- 
tively independent  of  weather  and  wind. 

The  Making  of  Cuttings. — The  making  of  cuttings  is  not  a  difficult 
process,  but  nevertheless  it  should  be  carefully  done  in  order  to  insure 
final  success.  After  the  vines  have  been  trimmed  and  the  trimmings 
have  been  placed  in  small  piles  along  the  rows  of  the  vineyard,  the 
cuttings  should  be  made  as  quickly  as  possible  on  the  spot,  the  laborers 
moving  from  pile  to  pile  as  they  finish  up.  The  shears  should  be  sharp 
and  kept  sharp,  both  to  insure  good  cuttings  and  to  hasten  the  work. 
A  poor  shear  is  worse  than  a  poor  farmhand,  and  it  pays  to  keep  the 
best  kind  of  every  tool  that  is  used  in  vineyard  work.  The  size  of  the 
cutting  must  be  decided  upon  according  to  the  conditions  of  the  soil. 
If  the  land  is  very  wet  and  is  likely  to  remain  so,  an  eight-inch,  or  even 
a  six-inch,  cutting,  will  do,  and  will  grow  better  than  a  long  one. 
Long  cuttings  will  reach  down  into  the  wet  soil  and  decay  at  the  lower 


108  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

end  before  they  take  root.  In  dry  and  warm  soils  the  cuttings  may  be 
from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  long,  or  even  longer  if  it  is  desirable  to 
bend  them  in  a  circular  way  in  the  holes  in  which  they  are  to  be 
planted,  or  if  the  soil  is  very  warm  and  dry,  when  it  is  of  importance 
that  the  cutting  should  reach  the  deeper  moisture.  A  twelve  or  four- 
teen inch  cutting  is  probably  an  average  size  cutting,  and  one  that  will 
answer  most  conditions,  in  case  they  are  not  previously  known. 

A  nurseryman,  or  any  one  who  can  give  his  cuttings  as  much  atten- 
tion as  they  require,  can  use  even  the  very  tips  of  the  vines  and  make 
them  grow.  But  for  general  planting,  especially  direct  in  the  field, 
seldom  more  than  one  or  two  cuttings  can  be  made  from  a  branch. 
The  cutting  should  be  cut  immediately  below  an  eye  or  joint.  Such 
cuttings  grow  better,  are  easier  to  plant  and  are  less  apt  to  dry  out. 
The  more  eyes  a  cutting  contains  the  better  is  the  cutting,  as  the  roots 
mostly  form  at  the  joints.  Many  make  the  cuttings  with  a  heel  of  old 
wood,  but  I  do  not  believe  such  cuttings  are  in  any  way  preferable  to 
those  made  of  only  one  season's  wood.  The  old  wood  does  not  grow 
any  better  than  young  wood,  generally  not  so  well,  and,  besides,  such 
cuttings  with  heels  are  more  difficult  to  plant  and  handle.  When 
the  cuttings  are  made,  they  should  at  first  be  placed  in  small  piles,  with 
the  top  ends  all  the  same  way,  and  as  soon  as  possible  afterwards  tied 
up  in  bundles,  with  at  least  two  strings  to  every  bundle.  For  tying, 
any  string  will  do,  but  split  basket-willow  twigs  are  probably  the 
strongest  and  least  apt  to  root.  Still  any  stout  twine  will  answer  the 
purpose.  From  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  cuttings  may  conven- 
iently be  put  in  each  bundle,  according  to  the  size  of  the  cuttings. 

The  Care  of  Cuttings. — After  the  cuttings  are  made  and  bundled,  they 
should  be  labeled  with  wooden  labels  and  immediately  taken  to  some 
place  where  they  can  be  heeled  in.  The  lead-pencil  is  the  best  for 
writing  the  names.  The  best  place  in  which  to  heel  in  the  cuttings  is 
on  the  north  side  of  some  large  building,  under  an  open  shed  or 
under  some  large  trees.  In  fact,  any  place  which  is  partially  shaded 
and  cool  will  do.  If  the  bundles  are  to  be  used  soon  or  shipped, 
they  might  be  placed  on  the  wet  ground,  and  only  covered  with  sacks 
or  with  straw,  but,  if  they  are  to  remain  any  longer  time,  they  must  be 
placed  in  the  ground  and  carefully  covered.  A  trench  should  be  dug 
half  the  depth  of  the  cutting,  but  slightly  wider.  The  bundles  are 
placed  in  the  trench  upright,  and  after  tLe  trench  is  full  the  soil  from 
the  new  trench,  parallel  with  the  first  one,  is  thrown  on  and  around 
the  bundles  so  as  to  keep  them  moist.  It  is  best  not  to  keep  the  cuttings 
too  moist,  and  on  no  account  should  they  be  wet,  as  they  will  then  begin 
.to  root  rapidly,  and  when  they  are  again  removed  these  roots  will  break 
or  dry  up  to  the  great  injury  of  the  cutting.  "If  unavoidably  the  plant- 
ing is  delayed  longer  than  expected,  the  bundles  of  cuttings  may  be 
taken  out  and  placed  in  dry  air  for  a  day  or  for  a  few  hours,  and  then 
replaced  in  the  soil.  This  may  be  done  several  times  without  any  injury 
accruing  to  the  cuttings,  the  only  effect  of  the  drying  being  to  retard 
their  rooting  and  sprouting,  but  it  should  of  course  not  be  done  after 
they  have  once  begun  to  callus  or  root.  To  place  cuttings  in  water  for 
any  length  of  time  is  nearly  always  injurious,  and  especially  so  if  the 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  109 

water  is  bad  or  contains  manure.  Manure  water  always  kills  cuttings 
readily.  If  the  cuttings  have  sprouted,  or  begun  to  make  roots,  or  form 
callus,  a  careful  vineyardist  will  take  his  bundles  to  the  field  submerged 
in  a  barrel  or  bucket  of  water,  or  at  least  wrapped  in  wet  sacks  or  blank- 
ets. If  again  the  cuttings  are  dry  and  a  fresh  cut  does  not  show  a  flow 
of  sap,  they  may  be  freshened  by  soaking  in  fresh  water  over  night. 
Bven  very  poor  and  dry  cuttings  are  easily  revived  this  way,  but  a 
continuous  immersion  for  several  days  will  injure  the  cuttings  and 
cause  them  to  rot.  It  is  also  of  importance  that  the  water  should  be 
clear  and  cold,  or  at  least  not  warm.  Instead  of  immersing  the 
cuttings  in  water,  they  may  be  set  down  in  cool  and  moist  soil  for  three 
or  four  days  before  being  planted.  The  soaking  in  water  is  the  sim- 
plest, quickest  and  most  effective  for  slightly  dried  cuttings. 

Planting  Cuttings. — Planting  cuttings  in  the  vineyard  can  be  done 
in  several  different  ways.  They  may  be  planted  with  a  spade,  with  a 
flat  planting  bar,  or  with  the  "  sheep 's-foot."  Each  one  of  these  tools 
will  answer  the  purpose  if  properly  used,  but  their  selection  must 
depend  upon  the  quality  of  the  soil,  and  upon  the  nature  of  the  land 
generally.  In  all  planting  of  cuttings,  the  following  points  must  be 
observed  as  of  importance  in  insuring  success.  The  cuttings  must 
be  set  in  moist  and  cool  soil.  The  lower  end  of  the  cuttings  must 
lodge  in  solid  ground,  and  there  must  be  no  air  space  at  the  bottom. 
Only  one  eye  should  be  left  above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  soil 
must  be  tamped  well  around  the  cutting  from  the  bottom  to  the  top. 
All  inferior  cuttings  should  be  thrown  away,  and  every  cutting  should 
be  examined  before  it  is  planted. 

For  a  description  of  the  tools  used  in  planting,  I  beg  to  refer  to  the 
end  of  this  chapter.  I  will  now  further  consider  the  above  points. 
Many  failures  are  made  by  not  planting  in  moist  soil.  If  irrigation 
is  needed,  irrigate  before  planting,  then  plow  and  harrow,  and  then 
plant.  When  moist  cuttings  are  planted  in  dry  and  warm  soil,  the 
latter  will  extract  all  the  moisture  from  the  cuttings,  and  the  latter 
will  fail  to  grow.  I  have  seen  parties  first  plow  deep  furrows  through 
the  vineyard,  so  as  to  air  and  dry  "the  ground  before  planting  the  cut- 
tings. This  is  not  necessary  and  even  harmful.  Moist  and  warm 
ground  is  essential  to  the  starting  and  growth  of  cuttings.  The 
lower  end  of  the  cutting  should  be  lodged  in  solid  ground,  or  the 
cutting  will  fail  to  grow.  This  point  is  of  the  utmost  importance, 
and  should  be  carefully  observed.  If,  when  the  cutting  is  pushed  down 
in  the  soil,  a  small  air  chamber  form  at  the  lower  end,  the  butt 
end  of  the  cutting  will  mold,  and  the  latter  will  be  poisoned  and  die. 
Nine-tenths  of  all  the  failures  in  planting  are  caused  by  neglect  in 
this  respect.  Care  is  especially  needed  when  the  sheep' s-foot  is  used. 
Only  one  eye  should  be  left  above  ground,  which  is  enough  for  all 
purposes.  Any  more  eyes  will  exhaust  the  cutting  before  it  is  rooted, 
and  the  additional  length  of  the  cutting  will  expose  it  to  the  danger 
of  being  broken  or  otherwise  injured.  The  soil  must  be  tamped  hard 
all  along  the  cutting  so  as  to  cause  the  latter  to  attract  the  necessary 
moisture.  I/x>sely  set  cuttings  very  often  fail,  especially  in  dry 
seasons.  All  inferior  cuttings,  especially  those  frosted  or  otherwise 


110  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

injured,  should  be  thrown  out  before  being  brought  to  the  field.  A 
cutting  costs  so  little  that  it  pays  to  use  only  the  strongest  and  best, 
when  a  much  better  stand  will  be  the  result.  Frosted  cuttings  can  be 
detected  by  their  darker  color.  Fresh  and  healthy  cuttings  should 
have  a  green  and  fresh  cambium  or  inner  bark,  and  a  fresh  cut  should 
show  fresh  sap  oozing  out. 

When  the  sheep' s-foot  is  used  in  planting,  the  butt  end  of  the  cut- 
ting is  inserted  in  the  forked  end  of  this  tool,  and  this  explains  why  it 
is  necessary  to  have  as  little  wood  as  possible  below  the  last  eye  of 
the  cutting.  By  pushing  the  sheep' s-foot  down  in  the  soil,  the  cutting 
is  pushed  simultaneously  down  to  the  proper  length;  a  twist  is  then 
given  the  sheep' s-foot  so  as  to  get  it  loose  from  the  cutting,  and  the 
former  is  then  pulled  up.  It  may  in  some  instances  be  necessary  to 
push  down  the  cutting  with  the  left  hand,  while  the  sheep' s-foot  is 
being  pulled  back,  as  care  must  be  taken  that  in  pulling  back  the 
sheep' s-foot  the  cutting  is  not  lifted.  Even  the  smallest  lift  will  cause 
the  lower  end  of  the  cutting  to  hang  in  an  air  chamber,  and  this  will, 
as  I  have  stated,  cause  the  cutting  to  mold  and  die.  When  planted, 
a  few  sharp  taps  with  the  foot  will  sufficiently  fix  the  cutting.  When 
the  flat  bar  is  used,  a  hole  is  first  made  by  the  bar,  the  cutting  is  then 
inserted,  and  the  hole  filled  up  by  again  inserting  the  bar  near  the 
cutting,  and  by  pressing  it  forward  towards  the  latter.  Neither  of  these 
tools  can  be  used  in  dry  or  stony  soils,  but  in  moist  and  loamy  soil, 
which  has  been  previously  well  prepared,  they  are  most  excellent,  as 
doing  the  work  both  quickly  and  well.  The  sheep' s-foot  is  unexcelled 
for  speed  in  loose  soil,  while  the  flat  bar  is  of  advantage  where  the 
soil  is  a  little  harder.  The  flat  spade  is  used  when  rocky  and  stony 
or  even  gravelly  soil  interferes  with  the  using  of  the  former  tools. 
Hvery  farmer  will  know  how  to  use  the  spade,  and  no  further  explan- 
ation is  required  here. 

Some  plant  the  cuttings  slantingly  in  the  soil,  in  order  to  bring 
them  as  near  the  surface  as  possible.  This  is  well  enough  and  proper 
in  very  wet  soils,  where  the  lower  strata  are  too  cool,  but  in  this  warm 
country  the  perpendicular  planting  is  easier  and  better.  By  twisting 
and  bending  the  cutting  in  the  dug  hole  a  longer  cutting  can  be  used, 
but  I  have  seldom  found  any  advantage  of  very  long  cuttings,  and 
few  soils  are  suited  to  raisin  grapes  when  such  methods  are  needed  to 
produce  strong  and  rapidly  growing  vines. 

Care  of  Young  Cuttings. — In  places  where  irrigation  is  needed  and 
used,  many  irrigate  the  cuttings  immediately  after  they  are  planted,  so 
as  to  settle  the  soil.  This,  however,  is  only  needed  where  the  ground 
is  very  dry  or  very  sandy.  It  is  much  the  better  way  to  irrigate  before 
planting  and  to  plant  on  the  loose  soil  after  "it  has  been  replowed  and 
properly  prepared.  Such  soil  keeps  the  moisture  for  a  long  time,  and 
even  in  dry  climates  will  require  no  irrigation  for  months  after  the 
planting.  The  principal  care,  after  the  cuttings  have  been  planted, 
but  before  they  are  fairly  started,  is  to  keep  the  ground  loose  and  to 
prevent  it  from  baking  on  the  surface.  The  best  way  to  accomplish 
this  is  to  run  a  revolving  randel  harrow  over  the  land  regardless  of 
the  cuttings.  This  kind  of  harrow  consists  of  a  row  of  vertical, 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  Ill 

slightly  concave  steel  discs,  which  revolve  when  the  harrow  is  pulled 
over  the  land.  No  regard  need  be  paid  to  the  rows  of  cuttings,  pro- 
vided they  do  not  stand  too  high  above  the  surface,  or  have  begun  to 
swell.  Not  one  cutting  in  a  hundred  is  injured,  and  those  that  are  cut 
off  are  sure  to  sprout  from  below.  After  every  shower  of  rain,  the 
land  should  be  harrowed  or  pulverized  in  this  way.  If  the  soil  is 
baked  and  hard  around  the  cuttings,  the  latter  will  be  slow  to  start, 
but  a  loosening  of  the  soil  will  have  the  desired  effect  almost  immedi- 
ately. The  amount  of  irrigation  needed  for  young  plantations  can 
only  be  decided  upon  on  the  ground.  The  cuttings  should  be  kept 
growing,  and  young  leaves  should  always  be  seen  at  the  tips  of  the 
branches.  Long  before  these  young  leaves  cease  growing,  a  copious 
supply  of  water  should  be  added  to  keep  the  soil  from  becoming 
too  dry. 

Transporting  Cuttings  to  Distant  Parts. — When  cuttings  are  to  be 
shipped  any  distance,  they  must  be  packed.  The  simplest  method  of 
packing  for  short  distances  is  to  fill  the  bottom  of  a  sack  with  wet 
straw,  and  then  slip  the  bundle  of  cuttings  down  in  the  sack,  and  a 
single  string  will  then  suffice  to  secure  the  sack  to  the  bundle.  Packed 
this  way,  cuttings  can  stand  a  voyage  of  a  week  or  more  if  the  weather 
is  not  too  hot.  If  a  longer  voyage,  of  say  several  weeks'  duration,  is 
necessary,  the  cuttings  should  be  packed  in  dry-goods  boxes,  and,  if 
the  time  of  transit  is  not  too  long,  no  other  packing  is  needed.  If, 
however,  a  very  long  transit  is  in  view,  more  precautions  for  the  safe 
arrival  of  the  cuttings  are  required.  After  the  bundles  have  been 
pressed  down  in  the  box,  moist  and  fresh  moss  is  packed  tightly  down 
all  along  the  sides  of  the  box.  Such  packing  will  keep  the  cuttings 
fresh  for  over  a  month.  For  a  longer  time,  coarse,  pulverized  char- 
coal filled  in  between  the  cuttings  is  a  splendid  pack  ing.  The  charcoal 
must  be  dry,  the  moisture  in  the  cuttings  being  enough  to  keep  them 
alive  for  several  months.  Packed  first  in  tin  boxes  surrounded  by 
charcoal,  and  then  the  boxes  soldered  tightly,  so  as  to  allow  no  air  to 
enter,  is  the  safest  method  for  transporting  cuttings  long  distances.  If 
there  is  a  possibility  to  repack  at  certain  stations  on  the  road,  wooden 
boxes  may  be  used  instead  of  tin.  The  waxing  of  the  ends  of  the 
cuttings  will  help  to  keep  them  moist.  All  lumber  boxes  should  be 
lined  with  waxed  paper,  and  all  cracks  carefully  nailed  up,  as  by  the 
drying  of  the  boards  the  contents  are  very  liable  to  run  out.  I/arge 
and  heavy  boxes  should  be  surrounded  by  iron  bands. 

Rooting  Cuttings. — There  are  two  ways  of  planting  cuttings  in  the 
nursery  in  order  to  have  them  rooted  for  next  season's  planting.  One 
way  is  to  plant  in  nursery  rows  four  feet  apart;  the  other  is  to  set  in 
beds.  For  such  nursery,  a  plat  of  land  with  rich  soil  and  with  good 
water  facilities  should  be  selected.  Water  should  never  fail  in  the 
nursery,  as  cuttings  always  require  more  water  than  old  plants  set 
farther  apart.  The  rows  should  be  staked  out  four  feet  from  each 
other.  Six  or  eight  inch  cuttings  should  be  used,  according  to  the 
depth  to  moisture;  the  more  moisture,  the  shorter  need  be  the  cuttings. 
With  a  big,  flat  hoe  the  soil  along  the  line  of  the  row  is  thrown  up  on 
one  side,  the  cuttings  are  set  down  upright  close  to  the  perpendicular 


112  THK    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

side,  and  the  soil  is  again  raked  back  with  the  same  kind  of  hoe,  and 
then  tamped  hard  around  the  cuttings.  The  latter  need  not  be  over 
two  or  three  inches  apart,  and  from  forty  to  fifty  thousand  may  be  set 
on  one  acre  of  ground.  In  no  instance  should  the  cutting  be  left  more 
than  one  or  two  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  best 
instrument  or  tool  for  opening  the  soil  and  for  covering  the  cuttings  is 
the  large  flat-faced  Italian  hoe,  used  by  Italian  workmen  both  in 
Europe  and  in  this  country. 

If  the  bed  system  is  adopted,  much  smaller  cuttings  may  be  used, 
although  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  them  smaller  than  six  inches. 
The  beds  may  be  two  feet  wide  and  four  feet  apart,  in  this  respect 
resembling  nursery  rows,  and  treated  just  as  such.  The  cuttings  are  set 
in  the  beds  two  or  three  inches  apart  each  way.  We  must  remember  that 
such  cuttings  require  much  more  water  than  cuttings  planted  in  four- 
foot  rows,  as  the  quantity  soon  exhausts  the  moisture  in  the  soil. 
The  beds  may  also  be  square,  each  one  surrounded  by  a  little  bank  or 
levee  of  soil  in  order  to  hold  the  water.  In  these  beds,  which  should  be 
slightly  below  the  general  surface  of  the  ground,  the  cuttings  are  set  very 
close, — two  or  three  inches  apart, — until  the  whole  bed  is  filled  up. 
These  beds  are  never  cultivated  in  any  other  way  than  by  pulling  the 
weeds  out  by  hand.  They  must  be  frequently  irrigated  by  flooding, 
except  when  the  soil  is  immensely  wet  or  moist. 

Vines  may  also  be  propagated  from  a  single  eye,  or  from  cuttings 
containing  a  single  eye.  Such  cuttings  may  be  set  perpendicularly  in 
beds  or  in  rows,  or  they  may  be  placed  horizontally  in  boxes  with  pure 
sand,  and  entirely  covered  over.  The  single  eyes  soon  sprout  and 
make  nice  little  plants,  with  a  well-developed  system  of  roots. 

All  these  cuttings  planted  in  beds,  if  properly  watered  during  the 
summer,  will  make  excellent  vines  to  be  set  in  vineyard  form  next 
season.  Being  set  so  close,  they  require  much  moisture  and  irrigation, 
the  many  new  roots  soon  exhausting  the  moisture  in  the  soil.  It  is 
better,  however,  to  have  the  cuttings  set  as  closely  as  possible,  so  as  not 
to  get  too  strong  vines.  An  overgrown  vine  is  more  expensive  to 
plant  and  more  difficult  to  handle  than  one  of  medium  growth.  Be- 
sides, the  latter  has  a  greater  number  of  fibrous  roots,  which,  if  in 
good  condition,  will  give  a  quick  start  and  rapid  growth  to  the  new 
vine.  , 

Care  of  Rooted  Vines. — The  same  precautions  are  to  be  observed  with 
rooted  vines  as  with  cuttings,  only  more  care  is  required  to  shield  the 
roots  from  the  sun  and  wind.  Wet  blankets  or  sacks  should  always 
be  used  when  the  roots  are  taken  to  the  field,  and,  if  the  vines  show 
the  least  sign  of  being  dry,  they  should  be  -soaked  for  several  hours  in 
pure  water,  and  in  this  respect  treated  just  like  cuttings. 

Planting  Rooted  Vines. — Planting  rooted  vines  is  not  attended  with 
many  difficulties.  The  most  important  points  to  observe  are  these. 
The  vines  must  be  freshly  dug.  If  not,  or  if  the  least  dry,  soak  in 
water  over  night.  Cut  away  all  dead  or  dry  rootlets.  Prune  the  top 
of  the  vine  down  to  two  or  three  buds,  and  leave  only  one  spur.  Have 
the  vines  covered  while  carried  out  in  the  field,  and  plant  only  in  moist 
ground.  The  young  and  tender  roots  are  easily  dried  if  set  in  warm 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  113 

and  dry  soil,  and  they  will  afterwards  decay  and  injure  the  vine.  A 
carefully  planted  vineyard,  where  rooted  vines  alone  have  been  used, 
and  where  every  precaution  has  been  taken  to  insure  success,  should 
have  about  ninety-seven  per  cent  of  the  vines  growing.  To  make 
every  one  grow  would  only  be  possible  in  a  very  small  plantation.  In 
the  large  raisin  centers,  all  this  planting  may  be  contracted  for.  The 
cost  of  planting  cuttings  is  generally  calculated  at  one-half  cent  per 
cutting,  and  for  rooted  vines  at  one  cent  per  vine.  Frequently 
parties  contract  to  supply  cuttings  and  to  plant  the  land  for  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  dollars  per  acre  or  less.  It  is  generally  better  to 
pay  the  higher  price  and  get  the  work  done  properly. 

Proper  Time  for  Planting. — The  time  for  planting  cuttings  depends 
greatly  upon  the  season,  the  quality  of  the  soil  and  the  moisture.  In 
wet  seasons  the  dry  land  should  be  planted  first,  and  cuttings  might  be 
started  there  as  soon  as  the  first  frost  allows  us  to  make  them  with  advan- 
tage. The  moister  the  soil  the  later  should  the  planting  be  begun, 
and  on  the  contrary  the  drier  the  soil  and  the  warmer,  the  sooner 
should  the  cuttings  as  well  as  the  rooted  vines  be  planted  in  the  fall. 
December  and  January  are  the  best  months  to  plant,  although  with 
care  cuttings  as  well  as  rooted  vines  may  be  set  as  late  as  in  April  or 
even  in  May.  As  a  rule,  early  planting  is  better,  as  it  gives  the  cut- 
tings chance  to  root  well  before  the  hot  weather  causes  the  shoots  to 
start.  In  very  rainy  seasons,  or  in  wet  places,  cuttings  should  be 
planted  later  than  rooted  vines.  Moisture  in  undue  degree  will  cause 
cuttings  to  rot,  while  its  influence  on  the  roots  of  the  vines  is  not  as 
great.  Rooted  vines  stand  both  moisture  and  drought  better  than 
cuttings  do.  On  sandy,  dry  soil  and  in  dry  seasons  I  would  wish  my 
cuttings  planted  as  early  in  December  as  possible;  while,  on  wet  places, 
I  would  delay  planting  until  after  the  frost  is  over  in  February.  The 
same  rule  applies  to  rooted  vines,  but  we  must  remember  that  roots 
begin  to  send  out  rootlets  almost  as  soon  as  they  are  dug,  and  that 
early  planting  will  preserve  these  for  the  early  use  of  the  vine,  while, 
in  late  planting,  almost  every  one  of  these  new  roots  will  be  destroyed 
in  planting  and  must  be  produced  over  again.  We  might  also  say- 
that  both  cuttings  and  rooted  vines^  should  be  set  as  soon  as  the  soil 
is  in  proper  condition  in  the  fall.  Do  not  wait  for  anything  after  the 
soil  is  dry  enough  to  permit  planting.  Early  planted  vines  will  have 
a  good  start. 

Cost  of  Cuttings  and  Rooted  Vines. — The  price  of  Muscat  or  raisin- 
grape  cuttings  generally  varies  from  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  to  five 
dollars  per  thousand,  and  have  been  sold  as  low  as  one  dollar  per 
thousand  cuttings.  Rooted  vines  again  vary  from  ten  to  twenty  dol- 
lars per  thousand,  according  to  the  demand  and  supply.  The  cost  of 
planting  is,  of  course,  different  in  different  localities.  In  Fresno  the 
ruling  prices  for  vineyard  planting  with  cuttings  is  one-half  cent  per 
cutting.  The  men  board  and  lodge  themselves  for  this  sum.  For 
rooted  vines  the  price  is  from  sixty  cents  to  one  dollar  per  hundred 
vines.  The  ground  must  be  in  a  perfect  condition,  but  the  success  of 
the  work  is  never  guaranteed,  as  so  much  depends  upon  after  treat- 
ment. While  the  actual  cost  of  planting  the  grapes  is  insignificant, 


114  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

it  will  be  found  that  the  many  different  expenses  of  a  large  vineyard 
of  say  1 60  acres  will  be  quite  considerable,  and  few  of  our  larger  raisin 
vineyards  in  irrigated  districts  have  cost  less  than  fifty  dollars  per  acre 
during  the  first  year.  This  includes  labor,  buildings,  tools,  etc. ,  but 
not  the  first  cost  of  land.  With  experience  and  constant  supervision, 
this  cost  may  be  reduced  somewhat,  and  under  very  favorable  circum- 
stances from  twenty  to  forty  dollars  even  per  acre  may  cover  the  cost 
of  planting  and  maintenance  during  the  first  season.  But  estimates  in 
this  direction  are  not  reliable,  as  one  man  will  spend  twice  as  much  as 
another  under  similar  circumstances. 

PLOWING  AND  CULTIVATION. 

Winter  Plowing. — The  plowing  and  cultivation  of  a  vineyard  com- 
prise different  operations,  both  in  the  spring,  winter  and  summer. 
Winter  plowing  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  vines  are  pruned,  and 
should  be  finished  before  the  buds  begin  to  swell  in  the  spring.  The 
plowing  should  begin  with  a  large  plow  and  two  horses,  and  the  soil 


Vineyard  Double  Plow. 

should  be  thrown  from  the  vines  towards  the  center  of  the  land  be- 
tween them.  As  such  a  large  plow  cannot  go  too  near  the  vines  with- 
out breaking  branches  and  injuring  the  buds,  a  smaller  single-horse 
plow  is  used  to  follow  after  the  double  team,  and  to  finish  up  by 
plowing  a  furrow  nearest  to  the  vines.  The  depth  of  this  plowing 
should,  if  possible,  be  from  six  to  eight  inches  in  the  center  of  the 
row,  and  from  four  to  six  inches  nearest  to  the  vines. 

^  Plowing  Devices. — To  enable  the  single  plow  to  run  as  closely  to  the 
vines  as  possible  without  injury  to  the  vines,  several  devices  are  used. 
The  block  device  consists  of  inserting  a  bk>ck  of  wood  two  inches  wide 
between  the  center  of  the  clevis  and  the  plow-beam.  This  throws  the 
singletree  out  to  one  side  and  enables  the  horse  to  walk  at  a  distance 
from  the  vine,  while  the  plow  follows  as  close  to  the  latter  as  possible. 
In  combination  with  this  block,  the  singletrees  should  be  so  constructed 
as  not  to  catch  the  branches  of  the  vines.  This  is  best  accomplished 
by  attaching  to  the  outside  end  of  the  singletree  a  flat,  doubled  leather 
strap,  to  which  is  fixed  a  common,  large  snap,  in  which  latter  the 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 


115 


traces  of  the  Harness  are  fixed.  Such  a  singletree  will  glide  by  the 
branches  without  giving  them  a  chance  to  catch  anywhere.  Similar 
singletrees,  or  even  doubletrees,  should  be  used  wherever  vineyard 
work  is  to  be  done,  and  they  have  the  double  advantage  of  being 
cheap,  practical  and  easily  made  by  any  farmhand  handy  with  tools. 

Cultivation. — The  cultivation  should  always  follow  the  plowing 
immediately,  so  as  to  prevent  the  soil  from  baking,  and  so  as  to  tear 
up  the  roots  of  the  weeds  which  have  been  partially  dislodged.  The 
first  cultivation,  which  should  always  be  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
plowing,  should  be  followed  by  cross-cultivation.  The  latter  brings 
the  soil  back  towards  the  vines,  filling  up  the  hollow  formed  by  the 
throwing  of  the  soil  from  the  vines. 


Raisin  Vineyard  Diamond-tooth  Cultivator. 


Back-furrowing. — Later  on,  when  the  weeds  have  to  some  extent 
decayed,  a  double-shovel  plow  is  by  some  growers  used  for  turning  a 
part  of  the  soil  back  towards  the  vines.  One  round  of  this  plow  on 
each  side  of  the  vines  is  all  that  is  required,  as  the  repeated  cultivation 
that  should  be  carried  on  in  a  vineyard  will  generally  suffice  to  bring 
the  balance  of  the  soil  back  from  the  center  of  the  land  towards  the 
vines. 

Cross-plowing. — Cross-plowing  is  not  absolutely  needed,  and  in  many 
places  not  even  possible,  as  where  the  vines  are  planted  closer  one  way 
than  the  other.  But  wherever  plowing  can  be  done  both  ways,  the 
land  will  be  benefited  by  being  plowed  one  way  one  year  and  the  other 
way  the  next  year,  so  that  in  course  of  time  all  the  soil  will  be  regu- 
larly broken  up.  When  there  is  plenty  of  time  and  enough  labor, 
cross-plowing  the  same  season  will  greatly  benefit  the  vines. 


116  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

Weed-cutters. — These  are  used  to  great  advantage  after  the  first 
plowing,  and  any  cultivator  may  be  rigged  with  one  of  them,  or  they 
may  be  made  as  separate  tools.  The  cutter-bar  is  simply  a  flat  bar, 
which  is  bent  in  the  shape  of  a  very  wide  U,  and  is  fastened  to  the 
beams  of  the  cultivator  just  behind  the  last  shovels  or  blades.  The 
horizontal  part  of  this  cutter-knife  should  be  on  the  same  level  as  the 
center  of  the  cultivator  blades,  and  stand  as  horizontal  as  possible,  in 
order  to  be  subjected  to  the  least  amount  of  friction.  The  effect  of 
such  cultivator  cutters  are  that  no  growing  weeds  are  left  behind 
wherever  they  pass. 

Cutter-sled. — I  have  used  with  great  advantage  a  combination  of  this 
cutter-knife  and  a  sled,  upon  which  the  driver  could  stand  and  ride, 
and  its  use  saved  time,  besides  doing  the  required  work  well.  Such  a 
cutter-sled  is,  however,  only  useful  in  already  well  plowed  and  culti- 
vated soil,  and  for  summer  work  it  is  just  the  thing  and  can  then  not 
be  surpassed  by  any  other  weed-cutting  tool  which  I  have  ever  seen 
used. 


Raisin  Vineyard  Weed-cutter. 

Various  other  tools  are  used,  and  different  ones  at  that  in  each  sepa- 
rate district.  Bach  grower  has  his  particular  way  to  cultivate  and  plow, 
and  not  two  vineyardists  do  the  work  alike.  Each  one  has  his  favor- 
ite tools  and  instruments,  which  he  often  changes  from  year  to  year 
or  replaces  by  new  inventions  of  local  mechanics  or  inventors.  A 
description  of  these  tools  and  the  various  methods  of  plowing,  culti- 
vating and  bringing  the  land  in  proper  condition  would  make  a  book  of 
itself  and  would  be  merely  a  history  of  each  individual  vineyard  in 
the  land.  An  enumeration  of  them  will  be  found  later  on. 

The  cultivation  of  the  vineyard  should  b,e  continued  as  long  as  it 
can  be  done  without  causing  injury  to  the  new  growth  of  the  vines. 
The  exact  number  of  times  the  vines  should  be  cultivated  is  impossi- 
ble to  decide  upon  beforehand,  as  almost  every  vineyard  requires  a 
different  method  of  working.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  during  the  summer 
no  weeds  should  be  allowed  to  grow  in  the  vineyard,  and,  as  long  as 
any  of  them  are  left,  the  soil  should,  if  possible,  be  cultivated. 
Every  weed  acts  like  a  chimney  for  the  moisture  in  the  soil,  which  it 


4! :  Wl 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  117 

sucks  out  to  the  detriment  of  the  vine,  while  weeds  which  grow  in 
among  the  branches  of  the  vines  will  also  seriously  interfere  with  the 
picking  of  the  grapes. 

Hoeing.  — Only  little  manual  cultivation  is  needed.  In  the  spring, 
after  the  first  plowing  and  before  the  buds  have  started  or  have  grown 
long  enough  to  interfere  with  the  work,  the  vines  should  be  hoed. 
The  object  of  hoeing  is  to  loosen  the  soil  nearest  the  vines,  and  to 
destroy  all  the  weeds  which  cannot  be  turned  under  by  the  plow,  and 
especially  those  which  grow  close  to  the  vines.  The  best  tool  for  this 
purpose  is  the  common,  heavy  hoe  with  a  long  handle.  A  very  useful 
hoe  can  be  made  of  old  shovels  which  are  so  worn  and  broken  that 
they  cannot  be  longer  used  for  digging.  The  blade  of  the  shovel  is 
fixed  to  a  new  handle  at  a  right  angle,  similar  to  a  hoe  handle,  while 
the  blade  itself  is  left  as  it  is.  Such  hoes  are  very  useful  in  cutting 
heavy  weeds,  and  work  with  great  facility.  Forked  hoes  are  used  by 
many  vineyardmen,  especially  for  stirring  the  hardened  crust  around 
the  vine,  but  I  believe  the  common,  heavy  hoe  a  more  useful  instru- 
ment, and  if  used  in  time  will  make  the  forked  hoe  unnecessary. 

Time  for  Cultivation. — Too  early  plowing  or  cultivation  before  the 
weeds  have  started  is  not  always  desirable,  as  it  prevents  the  weeds 
from  growing.  Such  weeds,  if  turned  under,  will  yearly  enrich  the 
land,  and  in  course  of  time  form  a  heavy  and  humus-rich  top  soil, 
which  will  serve  to  keep  the  moisture  in  the  soil  below.  I  therefore 
advocate  plowing  as  late  as  possible.  The  exact  time  must  be  decided 
for  every  particular  season  and  for  every  separate  locality,  and  no 
general  rule  can  be  given.  Wet  lands  should  be  plowed  earlier  than 
dry  lands;  it  is  the  latter  which  especially  require  the  green  weeds  to 
be  turned  under,  and  which  will  be  the  most  benefited  by  the  accumu- 
lation of  humus.  Our  vineyardists  disregard  this  fact  too  much,  and 
are  generally  too  apt  to  plow  their  dryest  lands  first. 

GRAFTING  THE  MUSCAT  ON  OTHER  STOCKS. 

Time  for  Grafting  Raisin-vines. — The  best  time  for  grafting  grape- 
vines, as  well  as  for  grafting  anything  else,  is  when  the  stock  on  which 
we  graft  has  its  sap  in  circulation,  and  when  the  scions  or  cuttings 
which  we  are  to  insert  in  the  stock  are  yet  dormant.  This  time  occurs 
from  the  middle  of  January,  when  the  sap  first  rises  in  the  old  vine, 
and  continues  to  March  or  even  April,  February  and  March  being  gen- 
erally the  months  best  suited  to  the  work.  Grafting  may  also  be  done 
in  the  fall  of  the  year  after  the  grape  crop  has  been  gathered,  while 
some  growers  have  best  succeeded  still  earlier,  and  advocate  the  month 
of  August  as  being  the  most  favorable  time  for  this  process.  The  sap 
at  that  time  ceases  flowing,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  its  being  clogged. 
Grapevines  can  be  grafted  at  almost  any  time  of  the  year  at  which  the 
weather  is  not  too  warm,  as  this  will  cause  the  cuttings  to  bud  out 
before  they  have  joined  the  stock.  If  grafting  on  resistant  stocks  is 
desired,  the  stocks,  if  small,  must  first  be  dug,  and  the  grafting  can 
then  be  performed  in  the  workshop  any  time  between  December  and 
March,  the  early  winter  months  being  preferable. 


118  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

Points  to  be  Observed  in  Grafting. — The  main  object  in  grafting  is  to 
properly  join  the  scions  and  the  stock.  The  point  of  junction  should 
be  the  cambium  layer,  or  what  is  commonly  called  the  inner  bark. 
If  a  cutting  of  a  vine  is  cut  off  smoothly  and  placed  in  the  ground, 
the  callus  soon  begins  to  form  at  the  lower  end.  This  callus,  which 
is  seen  to  exude  from  the  green  layer  between  the  hard  wood  and 
the  bark,  is  fed  by  the  sap  in  the  cutting  descending  through  the 
cambium  layer  and  forming  new  cells  at  its  free  end.  If  this  callus 
joins  a  similar  callus  of  the  cambium  or  green  layer  of  the  stock,  the 
two  calluses  unite  and  form  together  a  new  vine,  in  which  the  top 
consists  of  the  new  scion  and  the  root  of  the  old  vine.  The  junction 
of  the  two  is  the  place  where  the  cambium  surface  of  the  scion  met 
the  cambium  of  the  stock.  In  the  scions,  the  cambium  lies  very  close 
to  the  exterior  layer  of  the  cutting,  the  bark  here  being  very  thin, 
while  in  the  old  stock  the  cambium  is  situated  many  times  deeper  in, 
the  outer  layer  or  the  bark  being  very  thick.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
the  cambium  layers  of  the  two  should  meet  or  join  all  along  the  cut 
surface,  and  a  few  points  of  contact  and  junction  is  sufficient,  although 
it  is  better  to  have  as  large  a  junction  surface  as  possible  If  the  two 
cambium  layers  do  not  meet,  the  scion  will  not  grow,  or,  as  it  is 
called,  take.  The  scions  must  be  dormant  when  being  grafted,  and, 
if  their  buds  have  begun  to  swell,  they  will  probably  not  take,  or  at 
least  success  is  less  certain.  In  order  to  keep  them  dormant  they 
should  be  cut  early  in  winter,  and  then  be  buried  in  cool  and  only 
slightly  moist  earth,  either  in  a  cellar  or  on  the  north  side  of  a  house, 
where  the  sun  and  heat  will  not  strike  them  and  cause  them  to  start 
their  buds.  If  the  callus  should  form,  or  even  root,  the  callus  and 
roots  may  be  cut  away  without  great  injury  to  the  cuttings.  If  the 
cuttings  are  dry,  they  should  be  soaked  for  a  few  hours  in  tepid  water, 
and  afterwards  buried  in  moist  sand.  This  treatment  is  often  useful 
for  imported  cuttings  which  have  been  injured  in  transit.  They 
often  recover  vigor  wonderfully  fast,  and  should  never  be  given  up 
for  lost  as  long  as  there  is  any  green-colored  cambium  left,  in  which 
the  sap  may  again  be  brought  into  circulation. 

Various  Methods  of  Grafting. — The  general  way  to  graft  is  to  graft 
on  old  stocks.  Vines  of  one  variety  are  thus  changed  into  the  variety 
we  wish  to  grow,  and  from  which  the  scions  are  taken.  The  first  step 
is  to  dig  away  the  soil  from  the  vines  down  to  the  first  roots,  which 
should  be  done  by  a  separate  gang  of  men.  Next  the  stocks  are 
sawed  off  horizontally  at  the  first  roots,  or  say  from  four  to  six  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  This  should  also  be  done  by  separate 
hands  so  as  to  insure  rapidity  and  skill  in  the  work.  Some  grafters 
saw  off  the  stocks  somewhat  slanting,  so  a§ ito  cause  them  to  shed  the 
sap  which  always  exudes  from  the  stump.  Next  in  order  comes  the 
splitting  of  the  wood  of  the  stock  and  the  insertion  of  the  grafts. 
This  requires  care  and  skill,  and  should  not  be  done  by  careless  hands. 
The  splitting  of  the  stock  is  done  in  several  different  ways,  and  to 
accomplish  it  we  can  either  use  a  knife  and  a  wooden  mallet  or  a  hand- 
saw. If  the  former  is  used,  the  knife  must  be  sharp  and  thick,  so  as 
to  stand  the  blows  of  the  mallet.  Some  growers  even  use  a  sharp 


Simple  Lateral  Cleft  Graft.    ia.  Splitting  the  Trunk.    ib.  The  Scion,    ic.  The  Beveled  End  of  the 

Latter,    id.  Scion  and  Stock  Joined. 

2.  Simple  Transversal  Cleft  Grait  with  Two  Scions.     3.  Cleft  Grafting  with  a  Cutting  Graft. 
Champin  Graft,  or  Graft  on  a  Rooted  Vine.    40.   Graft  and  Stock  Before  being  Joined.    4$.  The 

Same  After  being  Joined.     All  after  Aim6  Champin's  "Vine  Grafting." 


120  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

chisel.  If  a  saw  is  the  tool  used, — and  I  prefer  it  every  time, — the 
edges  of  the  old  wood  should  afterwards  be  pared  off  smoothly  with  a 
sharp  knife,  so  as  to  leave  no  rough  marks  of  the  teeth  of  the  saw. 
The  stock  is  split  straight  across,  as  in  the  cleft  graft,  and  one  scion  is 
then  inserted  at  each  end  of  the  cleft  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stock; 
or  the  stock  is  split  on  one  side  only,  care  being  taken  that  the  cleft 
does  not  extend  across  the  stump,  and  in  this  cleft  a  scion  is  carefully 
fitted  as  before;  or  a  wedge-shaped  piece  may  be  sawed  out  or  cut  out 
of  the  stock,  and  of  the  size  that  can  be  fitted  by  a  scion.  It  makes 
but  little  difference  what  method  is  used,  as  with  ordinary  care  and 
skill  the  scions  will  take  quite  readily.  Kven  if  they  should  entirely 
fail,  the  same  stocks  may  be  grafted  over  next  fall  or  next  year,  as 
they  keep  their  vitality  almost  unimpaired  for  years  after  they  are  cut. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  saw  them  off  until  fresh  wood  is  reached. 

The  next  work  is  to  insert  the  scions.  They  should  never  be  longer 
than  sufficient  to  have  one  eye  above  the  surface  of  the  soil,  two  or 
three  eyes  to  the  scion  being  generally  enough.  The  cuttings  are  first 
cut  in  sufficient  lengths  in  the  field,  or  on  the  spot,  and  there  pared  to 
fit  the  cleft  in  the  stock.  If  prepared  in  the  house,  they  are  apt  to  dry 
out  and  become  ruined.  By  keeping  them  in  water  they  may  be  kept 
fresh,  but  this  greatly  injures  their  quality.  The  best  way  is  to  bring 
the  cuttings  out  to  the  vineyard  wrapped  up  in  wet  sacks,  and  to  cut 
and  pare  them  on  the  spot  where  they  are  to  be  grafted.  With  a  sharp 
knife  the  two  opposite  sides  of  the  scions  are  pared  off  tapering,  but 
not  necessarily  to  a  fine  point.  The  scion  is  then  fitted  in  the  cleft,  a 
small  wooden  wedge  being  useful  for  holding  the  latter  open  while 
the  scion  is  fitted.  If  the  stock  closes  tightly  upon  the  graft,  no  tying  is 
required,  but,  if  the  grip  of  the  stock  is  not  sufficient,  tying  is  needed. 
Cotton  cloth,  rnanilla  rope  or  anything  that  will  hold  the  two  together 
will  answer  the  purpose.  The  stocks  and  scions  will  both  dry  slightly, 
and  the  tying  should  therefore  be  secure  and  tight. 

A  piece  of  bark  of  the  vine  is  next  placed  over  the  cleft,  so  as  to 
prevent  any  soil  from  falling  in  the  cleft,  and  very  careful  grafters  use 
a  paste  made  of  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  adobe  or  clay  and  one  part 
of  cowdung,  for  covering  both  the  cleft  and  the  sides  of  the  grafts 
outside  of  the  tying.  A  stout  stake  is  driven  in  the  ground  close  to 
the  graft,  and  the  two  tied  together  in  order  that  the  graft  may  not 
give  or  be  disturbed  in  the  least.  The  hole  is  next  filled  with  soil, 
which  should  be  packed  tightly  and  heaped  above  the  scion,  thus 
forming  a  small  mound  above  the  ground  all  around  the  graft.  The 
soil  should  not  be  disturbed  until  the  new  shoots  are  well  above  the 
ground  and  have  begun  to  harden  their^jvood,  at  which  t;me  the 
security  of  the  graft  is  fully  assured.  One  or  more  of  the  grafts  may 
be  left  growing  for  the  first  year,  and  later  on  all  except  one  graft  are 
cut  off  so  as  to  give  the  vine  only  one  trunk. 

In  grafting  on  resistant  stocks,  the  latter  generally  being  smaller 
then  old  stocks,  a  different  graft  may  be  used,  such  as  the  whip  graft. 
This  graft  should  be  above  or  at  least  near  the  top  of  the  ground  in 
order  to  prevent  the  scion  from  taking  root,  the  latter' s  roots  not  being 
resistant  to  the  phylloxera.  Such  grafts  should  be  carefully  covered 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  121 

with  the  clay  mixture,  and  soil  should  be  heaped  up  over  their  tops. 
To  prevent  the  scions  from  drying  out,  their  tops  may  also  be  covered 
with  grafting  wax. 

Stocks  and  Their  Influence. — The  old  stock  has  a  decided  influence 
on  the  scion  and  the  new  vine.  Which  stock  is  the  best  on  which  to 
graft  the  Muscat  has  not  yet  been  determined,  but  we  may  presume 
that  any  strong  and  healthy  growing  variety  will  answer  our  purpose. 
During  the  first  year,  and  also  during  the  second  year,  in  many 
instances  the  new  vine  assumes  a  character  half  way  between  that  of  an 
old-stock  variety  and  that  of  the  variety  of  the  scions.  Thus  I  have  seen 
Muscats  grafted  on  Sultanas  and  Zinfandels  which  were  almost  identi- 
cal with  these  varieties.  If  I  had  not  positively  known  that  they  were 
the  tops  produced  from  Muscat  scions,  I  would  never  have  believed 
them  to  be  anything  else  than  suckers  from  the  old  stocks.  The 
leaves,  berries  and  branches  of  these  Muscats  were  the  first  year  exactly 
like  Sultanas.  The  berries  of  those  grafted  on  black  grapes  were, 
however,  in  this  instance,  not  black  but  white,  but  I  have  heard  of 
other  instances  in  which  they  were  partially  colored.  Some  vines, 
again,  showed  characteristics  of  both  varieties,  the  leaves  generally 
being  similar  to  the  old  stock,  while  the  grapes  showed  the  character- 
istics of  the  Muscats.  This  bastardity,  however,  wears  off  in  a  year  or 
two,  and  finally  the  vine  assumes  the  full  characteristics  of  the  scion 
variety.  When  this  takes  place  it  is  evident  that  the  sap  of  the  scion 
or  the  top  of  the  vine  has  either  changed  the  root,  or  through  its  quan- 
tity overpowered  the  effects  of  the  root-sap. 

Muscats  grafted  on  Malagas,  Feher  Szagos,  Sultanas  and  Zinfandels 
all  do  well  in  time,  and  in  many  instances  bear  even  better  than  Mus- 
cats on  their  own  roots.  Our  experience  in  grafting  the  Muscat  is, 
however,  limited,  and  we  do  not  know  with  any  certainty  which  roots 
are  the  most  favorable  or  the  most  unfavorable  on  which  to  graft 
the  Muscat  grape.  I  have  seen  grafted  Muscats  on  wine  stocks 
which  did  not  do  well  as  regards  bearing,  while  the  growth 
of  the  vines  was  rather  vigorous.  These  varieties  mentioned  above 
are,  however,  suitable  stocks  for  Muscat  grafts.  I  learn  from  Mr. 
R.  C.  Kells  of  Yuba  City  that  the  late  Dr.  S.  R.  Chandler  of 
the  same  locality  cleared  the  third  year  seventy-five  dollars  per 
acre  from  Muscats  grafted  on  Mission  vines.  This  must  be  consid- 
ered as  very  successful,  especially  as  I  have  heard  of  other  instances 
where  similar  grafts  did  not  bear  sufficiently  the  third  year  to  pay  for 
the  labor  of  caring  for  the  vineyard  work  that  year. 

VARIOUS  SUMMER  WORK. 

Sulphuring. — Sulphuring  the  vines  is  now  considered  a  most  neces- 
sary operation,  and  without  doing  it  well  and  in  time  no  good  crops  can 
be  relied  upon.  It  is  true  that  good  crops  of  grapes  are  sometimes  had 
without  sulphuring,  but  this  is  only  due  to  chance;  the  absence  of 
mildew,  and  immunity  from  disease  of  unsulphured  vines  are  rare, 
even  in  otherwise  most  perfectly  kept  vineyards. 

The  sulphuring  consists  in  thoroughly  dusting  the  growing  vines, 
leaves,  branches,  flower  buds  and  berries  with  powdered  sulphur. 


122  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

The  first  sulphuring  must  be  done  when  the  grapevines  leaf  out  in  the 
spring,  and,  when  the  young  shoots  are  about  six  inches  long,  it  is 
about  time  to  commence.  Many  growers  sulphur  only  once,  some  go 
over  their  vines  two  times,  but  our  most  successful  growers, — those 
who  get  the  best  and  largest  fruit  crop  of  grapes  and  bunches, — 
sulphur  in  unfavorable  seasons  three  or  four  times.  The  second 
sulphuring  is  done  just  before  the  blossoms  open,  and  may  even, 
provided  the  weather  remains  cool  and  windy,  be  done  in  the  open 
blossoms  with  great  benefit  to  the  setting  berries.  Miss  M.  F.  Austin 
of  Fresno  was  the  first  to  successfully  sulphur  in  the  open  blossom,  the 
result  being  very  large  crops.  But  not  all  have  been  as  successful  as 
she,  and  one  of  our  most  experienced  vineyardists  and  raisin -growers, 
T.  C.  White,  prefers  to  sulphur  just  before  the  blossom  opens,  as,  in 
case  of  very  warm  weather  when  the  sulphur  is  thrown  on  the  blos- 
som, the  latter  is  apt  to  blast.  We  are  therefore  on  the  safe  side  if 
we  sulphur  just  before  the  buds  have  opened,  and  after  the  grapes  have 
set.  But  on  cold,  windy  days  when  one  of  the  cold  electric  northwest 
winds  are  sweeping  down  the  valleys,  sulphuring  must  be  done  whether 
the  blossom  is  open  or  not,  as  it  is  just  at  this  time  the  sulphur  is 
required  the  most,  in  order  to  counteract  the  formation  of  the  first  stage 
of  the  powdery  mildew.  The  vapor  of  the  sulphur  destroys  the  germs 
of  the  mildew,  and  thus  prevents  the  latter  from  causing  the  grapes  to 
fall  off.  After  the  grapes  have  fully  set,  no  further  sulphuring  is 
required  except  in  the  case  of  heavy  rains  or  in  continued  cloudy 
weather,  when  there  is  always  danger  that  the  mildew  will  reappear. 
If  heavy  rains  should  occur  during  the  summer,  a  renewed  sulphuring 
is  always  necessary  or  at  least  advisable,  but  in  ordinary  seasons  no 
sulphuring  is  needed  after  the  berries  have  set  well,  as  the  germs  of 
the  mildew  are  then  sufficiently  injured  to  not  develop  later  in  the 
season. 

Sufficient  sulphuring  is  always  noticeable  in  the  vineyard  by  its 
smell,  and,  when  this  smell  is  strong  and  pronounced,  no  further 
sulphuring  is  required.  The  sulphur  is  applied  to  the  vines  either 
by  the  * '  dredger ' '  (or  dust-can)  or  by  a  pair  of  sulphur  bellows.  The 
dredger  is  used  when  the  vines  are  small,  while  the  bellows  are  neces- 
sary to  spread  the  sulphur  evenly  when  the  vines  have  reached  a  cer- 
tain size.  Many  growers  use,  during  the  first  sulphuring,  small 
burlap  bags  filled  with  sulphur.  The  meshes  of  the  burlaps  are 
large  enough  to  allow  the  sulphur  to  go  through.  The  sulphur  should 
be  finely  pulverized  to  be  effective,  and  the  sublimated  French  sulphur 
is  by  many  considered  the  best.  The  cost  of  sulphuring  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  vines,  but  is  generally  about  three  dollars  per 
acre.  Young  vines  under  three  years  of  age  require  little  sulphuring, 
while  older  vines  require  a  great  deal.  Abotft  ten  tons  of  sulphur  will 
be  enough  for  160  acres. 

Tying  Over. — The  tying  over  of  the  branches  is  another  vineyard 
operation  much  used  in  the  interior  raisin  districts,  generally  in  the 
end  of  June  or  the  middle  of  July.  It  consists  in  so  bending  and  tying 
the  long,  straggling  branches  of  the  vine  that  they  will  shade  the 
grapes  hanging  in  the  center.  The  long  branch  is  bent,  not  iu  a  direct 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  123 

line  towards  the  center,  as  it  would  then  expose  too  many  of  the  lower 
grape  bunches,  but  in  a  spiral  direction  round  the  vine.  If  there  is 
any  fear  that  the  grapes  will  be  exposed  and  sunburned,  and  the  vines 
have  not  been  properly  summer  pruned,  the  tying  over  is  the  only 
process  by  which  great  loss  can  be  prevented  and  the  grape  crop  saved. 
In  tying  over,  no  twine  is  used.  The  end  of  the  long  branch  is  twisted 
and  fastened  to  other  branches,  and,  when  the  grapes  are  ripe  and  the 
picking  season  comes,  a  single  light  pull  will  suffice  to  untie  all  and 
allow  the  grapes  to  be  picked.  Great  care  should  be  used  in  tying 
over,  lest  the  lower  branches  become  exposed  and  sunburned.  Careless 
or  inexperienced  laborers  will  often  accomplish  a  great  deal  of  work 
and  a  great  deal  of  harm  in  an  incredibly  short  time.  I  have  seen 
vineyards  where  more  harm  was  done  by  tying  over  than  by  the  sun 
and  wind  combined. 

Covering  the  Vines. — Instead  of  tying  over,  many  vineyardists  now 
cover  the  vines,  and  place  the  covers  on  the  open  center  of  the  vine, 
in  order  that  they  may  protect  the  grapes  from  exposure  to  the  sun, 
This  is  done  in  June,  several  days  before  the  hot  spell  is  expected. 
The  last  week  in  June  is  the  best  time  almost  everywhere  in  Califor- 
nia, as  the  vines  are  then  open  in  the  center,  and  any  unusually  hot 
weather  would  easily  cause  the  grapes  to  sunburn.  The  process  of 
covering  is  very  simple.  With  a  pair  of  shears  the  longest  branches 
are  clipped  off  and  immediately  placed  on  the  open  center.  This  is 
generally  enough  to  prevent  the  exposed  grapes  in  the  center  of  the 
vine  from  being  scalded.  More  than  half  a  dozen  branches  will  seldom 
be  required,  and  at  picking  time  these  dry  branches  must  first  be  thrown 
off,  so  as  to  give  the  picker  access  to  the  grapes.  The  covering  of  the 
vines  is  a  better  process  than  tying  over,  requiring  less  work  and  being 
more  quickly  performed.  It  is  especially  useful  for  old  vines,  as  the 
grapes  of  young  vines  are  principally  exposed  from  the  sides. 

Thinning  the  Crop. — The  proper  thinning  of  the  crop  should  be 
done  by  pruning.  If  the  proper  amount  of  wood  is  left,  no  thinning 
out  of  the  grapes  is  needed.  If  a  few  show-grapes  or  extra  large 
raisins  are  needed  for  exhibiting  purposes,  they  can  be  produced  by  a 
judicious  cutting  of  the  majority  of  the  grapes  from  any  single  bunch. 
If  the  free  half  of  the  bunch  is  cut  off,  the  part  that  is  left  will  pro- 
duce very  large  grapes.  This  operation  is,  however,  never  likely  to 
enter  as  a  regular  vineyard  operation  in  our  vineyards,  as  with  us  labor 
is  too  scarce.  The  object  of  our  raisin  industry  is  to  produce  cheap 
medium-sized  raisins  of  good  quality,  to  be  used  by  the  masses  of  the 
people,  instead  of  a  smaller  quantity  of  very  large  grapes,  which 
could  only  be  used  by  the  rich. 

Ringing  the  Vines. — This  consists  in  removing  a  part  of  the  bark 
all  around  a  cane.  In  France  and  Greece  a  special  instrument  is  made 
to  perform  this  operation  quickly  and  carefully.  A  ring  of  bark  half 
an  inch  wide  is  all  that  is  required  to  have  the  desired  effect.  The 
vines  are  ringed  when  the  grapes  are  half  grown,  and  only  a  few  canes 
are  ringed  on  each  vine.  The  effect  of  ringing  is  to  greatly  increase 
the  crop  of  grapes,  also  to  produce  the  grapes  earlier  in  the  season. 
So  far  this  process  has  not  been  used  in  California  to  any  extent.  In 


124  THE     RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

the  Grecian  Islands,  where  currants  are  raised,  this  ringing  has  been 
practiced  for  years,  with  more  or  less  beneficial  effect.  The  sap  in  the 
cane  that  is  ringed  is  prevented  from  again  returning  to  the  root,  and 
goes  to  produce  a  larger  quantity  of  grapes  above  the  ring.  But 
thereby  the  cane  is  seriously  injured,  and  often  to  such  an  extent  that 
it  must  be  entirely  removed  the  following  season.  Care  must  there- 
fore be  taken  to  leave  enough  unringed  branches  to  serve  as  fruit-bear- 
ing wood  the  following  year.  If  done  with  care  and  good  judgment, 
the  ringing  does  no  great  injury  to  the  vine.  For  a  fuller  account  of 
the  process,  see  article  on  Currants. 

The  Vineyard  Labors  of  the  Year. — The  following  synopsis  of  the 
various  labors  in  a  raisin  vineyard  can  only  be  of  interest  to  the 
beginner,  or  to  any  one  who  contemplates  engaging  in  the  raisin  busi- 
ness. The  data  given  are  only  approximate,  as  they  must  differ  in 
different  localities,  or  according  to  the  changing  of  the  seasons  : 

December. — After  the  first  frost,  or  when  the  vines  are  dormant, 
planting  new  vines  and  cuttings  may  begin.  Pruning  the  old  wood* 
Burning  the  prunings.  Manuring  the  soil. 

January. — Plowing,  cultivating  and  planting. 

February. — Cultivating  and  plowing. 

March. — Grafting  the  grapes  and  finishing  plowing. 

April. — Hoeing  the  vines  and  cultivating.  Sulphuring  and  suck- 
ering. 

May. — Sulphuring  and  summer  pruning. 

June. — Hoeing.     Covering  or  tying  over  the  vines. 

July. — Irrigating  where  needed.     Fixing  trays  and  sweatboxes. 

August. — Distributing  trays  and  sweatboxes  in  the  vineyard.  Pick- 
ing the  first  crop.  Packing  should  begin  as  soon  as  possible. 

September. — Picking,  drying,  turning  the  trays,  reversing,  taking  up. 

October. — Picking  the  last  of  the  second  crop.     Packing  continues. 

November. — Hauling  in,  stacking  and  cleaning  off  trays  and  sweat- 
boxes. Irrigating  and  manuring  the  land.  New  land  should  be  pre- 
pared for  planting,  which  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  first  frost  has 
killed  the  leaves  of  the  vine. 

PRUNING. 

Winter  Pruning^  or  Pruning  Hard  Wood. — The  pruning  of  vines 
comprises  two  different  processes.  The  first  one  has  for  its  object  the 
shaping  of  the  vines,  the  second  one  similarly  the  shortening  of  the 
branches  properly  so  as  to  enable  them  to  bear  better  fruit.  These 
two  points  must  always  be  kept  in  view,  much  more  so  of  course 
during  the  first  few  years,  before  the  vines  have  reached  their  bearing 
age.  But  even  in  after  years  the  pruning  anust  be  so  conducted,  that 
the  shape  of  the  vine  is  not  changed  so  as  to  interfere  with  the 
work  in  the  field,  or  with  the  perfect  development  of  the  grapes.  As 
regards  the  shape  of  the  vine,  it  has  been  decided  that  in  our  raisin 
districts  the  Muscat  requires  to  be  pruned  low,  in  order  to  properly 
protect  the  grapes  from  sun  and  wind.  The  head  should  be  as  low 
as  possible,  or  even  rest  on  the  ground,  and  in  no  instance  be  more 
than  a  few  inches  above  the  same.  Many  of  the  bunches  will  then 


THE     RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  125 

rest  on  the  ground  or  hang  a  few  inches  above  it,  and  experience  shows 
us  that  such  low  bunches  are  the  best  and  those  which  produce  the 
finest  raisins.  Tall  Muscat  vines  never  produce  as  sweet  and  as  large 
bunches  or  grapes  as  those  headed  low,  and  their  grapes  are  apt  to 
sunburn  or  be  otherwise  checked  in  their  growth.  During  the  first 
year,  the  young  vine  should  be  cut  back  to  a  single  stem,  it  being 
enough  to  leave  two  or  three  eyes  above  the  ground.  The  second 
season  these  canes  should  all  be  cut  away  except  three,  which  are  to 
form  the  future  head  of  the  vine.  Bach  one  of  these  may  be  cut  to 
two  eyes,  thus  leaving  six  eyes  on  the  vine.  In  the  majority  of 
vines,  the  head  should  by  this  time  have  been  formed,  as  the  following 
year  will  be  the  first  year  in  which  the  vines  will  bear. 

When  Muscat  vines  have  grown  two  seasons,  they  should  be  pruned 
for  fruit.  The  third  season  will  always  give  some  fruit,  while,  in 
many  localities  where  the  vines  have  been  well  cared  for,  the  yield 
may  be  quite  large  and  pay  handsomely.  No  direction  as  to  pruning, 
which  will  apply  to  every  locality  or  to  every  vine,  is  possible.  In 
different  localities  the  climatic  and  other  conditions  are  so  variable 
that  the  methods  of  pruning  may  be  modified.  Where  the  vines  grow 
sJrim^-ajidjasorojiSf  more  wood  should  be  left.  In  cool  and  sheltered 
places  the  vines  should  be  given  a  greater  spread  to  allow  more  sun 
and  air  to  enter.  In  warm  localities,  with  a  broiling  sun,  the  prin- 
cipal object  in  pruning  should  be  to  properly  shelter  the  grapes.  There 
is  danger,  or  at  least  there  are  great  disadvantages  in  pruning  eiTtie"r 
too  long  or  too  short,  and  in  leaving  too  many  or  too  few  spurs. 
In  pruning  too  long,  or  leaving  too  many  eyes,  the  shape  of  the  vine 
is  changed  or  even  seriously  injured.  In  leaving  too  many  spurs,  the 
vines  may  bear  too  many  and  too  small  grapes.  To  find  the  medium 
between  these  extremes  is  always  the  great  object  and  study  to  which 
the  grower  should  devote  his  attention.  In  rich  and  moist  soils  which 
produce  strong  vines,  more  eyes  should  be  left,  and  in  sandy,  poor 
soil  a  few  eyes  may  suffice  to  cause  the  vine  to  bear  much  more  that 
it  can  properly  mature  and  perfect.  The  year  before  the  vines  bear 
their  first  good  crop,  the  spurs  left  should  not  exceed  three  or  four, 
and  each  spur  should  not  have  more  than  two  eyes,  including  the 
eye  nearest  the  old  wood,  which  eye  is  often  overlooked  and  not 
counted  in.  The  next  year  a  few  more  spurs  may  be  left,  but  at  no 
time  should  each  spur  be  allowed  to  carry  more  than  two  eyes.  If 
more  eyes  are  left,  the  lower  eyes  will  not  develop,  and  the  only  thing 
attained  by  such  pruning  is  to  increase  the  size  of  the  head,  and  to 
place  the  leaves  and  the  grapes  farther  away  from  the  center  of  the 
vine. 

At  the  age  of  six  years,  or  when  the  vine  is  in  full  bearing,  no  more 
spurs  should  be  added,  as  the  vine  has  then  attained  a  mature  age, 
and  the  yield  will  increase  independently  of  an  increased  number  of 
spurs.  How  many  spurs  should  be  left  it  is  not  possible  to  say.  The 
experience  with  most  growers  is  generally  that  too  few  spurs  are 
left,  and  that  from  ten  to  fifteen  spurs  are  not  too  many  on  large 
and  healthy  vines.  The  tendency  of  the  growers  is  now  to  leave 
more  spurs  than  formerly,  and  to  always  restrict  the  spurs  to  two 


126  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

eyes  each.  This  experience  has  been  acquired  simultaneously  in 
Fresno,  San  Bernardino  and  San  Diego  counties.  Many  growers 
affirm  the  fact  that  the  difficulty  is  to  get  spurs  enough,  and  my  own 
experience  is  that,  after  the  vine  has  once  attained  its  age  of  full 
bearing,  all  the  strongest  branches  are  required  to  furnish  spurs,  and 
that  only  the  weak  and  sickly  shoots  should  be  cut  away  entirely. 
The  strong  flow  of  sap  in  the  spring  requires  many  outlets,  so  as  not 
to  unnecessarily  push  the  cell  walls  and  cause  disorders,  and  in  case 
the  soil  is  not  strong  enough  to  sustain  and  perfect  so  many  grapes, 
it  is  better  to  manure  it  heavily  and  make  it  rich  enough  for  all  pur- 
poses. I  believe  an  average  of  from  eight  to  ten  spurs  are  required  by 
strong  and  bearing  vines.  Only  strong  canes  should  be  left  at  any 
time.  Weak  and  immature  canes  should  be  cut  off  close  to  the  trunk 
or  to  the  head. 


Muscatel  Vine  Eight  Years  Old,  after  Winter  Pruning. 

This  method  of  pruning  differs  materially  from  that  this  season 
adopted  by  A.  B.  Butler.  He  leaves  now  only  from  five  to  eight  spurs 
on  the  vines,  generally  the  lesser  number.  He  maintains  that  his  ob- 
ject is  to  produce  large  and  superior  grapes,  and  not  to  have  his  vines 
overbear.  The  outcome  of  such  close  pruning  has  not  yet  been 
demonstrated,  but  it  may  be  possible  that  this  is  the  proper  way.  Mr. 
Butler  has  certainly  one  point  in  his  favor,  and  that  is  that  it  has  not 
yet  been  demonstrated  that  very  close  pruning  causes  the  disease  known 
as  black-knot,  as  quite  frequently  the  unpruned  vines  show  this 
disease  much  more  than  those  which  are  pruned  close.  Another  point 
in  favor  of  this  pruning  is  that  it  has  been  practiced  in  Malaga  for 
years  without  any  ill  effects.  But,  before  s?uch  very  close  pruning  can 
be  generally  recommended,  our  experience  in  this  direction  should  be 
more  extensive,  and  several  years  more  will  be  necessary  to  come  to 
any  satisfactory  conclusion  in  this  respect.  We  know,  however,  that 
too  many  (say  from  twenty  to  twenty-five)  spurs  will  exhaust  the  low- 
headed  Muscatel  vines,  and  in  order  to  bring  such  vines  back  to  proper 
bearing  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  reduce  the  number  of  spurs  at 
once  to  one- third  and  then  gradually  increase  their  number  as  the  vines 


THE     RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  127 

grow  stronger.  Every  grower  .should  study  his  own  vines  and  adapt  'y 
the  number  of  spurs  to  the  quality  of  the  crop.  If  the  crop  is  inferior, 
reduce  the  number;  if  again  the  crop  is  superior,  we  may  try  to  grad- 
ually give  a  few  more  spurs  in  order  to  reach  the  greatest  yield  of  first- 
class  grapes.  In  pruning  the  spurs,  the  cut  should  be  made  a  little 
above  the  eye  or  bud,  and  not  so  close  to  it  that  it  will  be  injured  and 
dry  out. 

Suckers  from  the  roots  should  be  removed  to  a  limited  extent, 
that  is,  now  and  then  a  sucker  may  be  left  in  order  to  give  material 
for  forming  a  new  head,  if  this  should  be  found  necessary.  But  as  a 
rule  the  many  suckers  which  rise  from  the  roots  should  be  removed  in 
early  spring  with  a  sharp-pointed  stick,  and  even  those  which  rise  from 
below  the  regular  head  should  be  broken  off  while  young,  or  be  pruned 
off  in  winter  time. 

Another  system  of  pruning  called  the  Chaintre  system  has  been 
introduced,  or  at  least  spoken  of  during  the  last  few  years.  As,  how- 
ever, it  is  not  generally  used,  or  even  to  my  knowledge  used  at  all, 
for  raisin  grapes,  I  need  only  here  allude  to  it.  It  consists  of 
pruning  the  vine  to  one  single  long  stem,  which  is  carried  along  the 
ground  and,  at  a  distance  of  six  or  eight  feet  from  the  root,  fastened  to 
a  stake.  This  branch  is  pruned  to  shorter  branches  and  spurs,  each  of 
the  latter  to  one  or  two  eyes  each  to  furnish  wood  and  fruit.  The 
advantages  of  the  Chaintre  pruning  are  claimed  to  be  principally  two, — 
a  greater  yield  of  grapes  and  a  larger  outlet  for  the  abundant  sap  in  the 
spring.  It  is  supposed  that,  if  the  vine  is  pruned  too  short,  the  sudden 
flow  of  sap  in  the  spring  has  a  great  tendency  to  poison  some  of  the 
cells  and  vessels  of  the  wood,  and  cause  the  disease  known  as  black- 
knot.  The  Chaintre  system  endeavors,  by  furnishing  the  vine  with 
more  cells  and  vessels,  and  thus  a  larger  outlet  for  the  sap,  to  overcome 
this  difficulty.  The  Chaintre  system  has,  however,  some  great  incon- 
veniences. It  interferes  considerably  with  the  tillage  of  the  soil.  It 
increases  the  cost  of  the  vineyard  through  the  extra  stakes  necessary  to 
support  the  vines, — inconveniences  so  great  that  I  doubt  whether  the 
system  will  ever  be  seriously  adopted  anywhere  on  this  coast,  even  if 
it  should  prove  of  any  advantage. 

The  time  for  the  pruning  depends  upon  the  season.  The  only  safe 
rule  is  that  vineyards  may  be  pruned  as  soon  as  the  vines  are  dormant. 
If  pruned  too  soon,  a  new  growth  will  start,  which  will  be  killed  by 
the  first  frost.  In  many  seasons  the  pruning  may  be  done  in  Novem- 
ber and  December;  in  large  vineyards  it  must  be  begun  early,  so  as  to 
finish  before  the  plowing  commences.  Early  pruning  will  cause  the 
vines  to  start  early  in  the  spring,  while  late  pruning  will  considerably 
delay  the  starting  of  the  buds.  When  the  spring  frosts  are  to  be 
feared,  the  pruning  may  be  deferred  for  some  months,  or  until  the  end 
of  January,  as  it  delays  the  budding  out  of  the  vine  in  the  spring, 
sometimes  as  much  as  fourteen  days.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  first 
warm  spring  weather  is  so  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  grape- 
vines and  the  setting  of  the  fruit,  that  every  advantage  should  be  taken 
cf  the  same.  The  very  best  crops  are  generally  had  on  early  pruned 
vines. 


128  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

Bleeding  of  the  Vines. — The  bleeding  of  the  vines  after  pruning  in  the 
spring  is  by  many  considered  injurious.  So  far  as  I  know,  no  direct 
experiments  to  prove  this  have  been  made  in  this  country,  but 
European  experiments  with  wine  grapevines  point  to  no  ill  effects 
from  the  bleeding  of  the  vines.  The  bleeding  retards  the  budding  out, 
and  this  fact  has  led  some  growers  to  the  practice  of  pruning  twice.  In 
the  first  pruning  an  extra  eye  is  left  on  every  spur,  and  these  eyes  are 
again  clipped  off  shortly  before  the  eyes  begin  to  swell  in  the  spring. 
The  bleeding  of  the  vines  thus  causes  the  eyes  to  be  retarded  until  the 
frost  is  over.  I  believe  such  practice  is  both  unnecessary  and  too 
costly,  and  is  not  required  in  any  of  our  raisin  districts,  and  where 
such  practice  must  be  employed  the  raisin  grape  cannot  be  perfectly 
at  home.  Of  late  years  spring  frosts  have  become  very  rare  in  our 
principal  raisin  districts,  and  the  practice  of  double  pruning  is  no  longer 
thought  of. 

Summer  Pruning,  or  Pruning  Green  Wood. — Summer  pruning  is  a 
much  disputed  vineyard  operation,  which,  however,  at  least  in  some 
localities,  is  of  great  importance.  This  summer,  or  rather  spring, 
pruning  consists  of  cutting  back  the  young  growing  shoots  from  one- 
third  to  one-half  just  after  the  berries  have  set  well.  The  proper  time 
of  the  year  is  in  May,  but  the  exact  time  must  necessarily  be  different 
in  different  localities  and  seasons.  In  Fresno  the  cutting  back  should 
not  be  done  later  than  May,  and  never  except  when  the  vines  show  a 
vigorous  growth.  The  principal  object  the  summer  pruner  has  in 
view  is  to  force  the  secondary  branches  of  the  vine  as  much  towards 
the  center  of  the  vine  as  possible,  so  as  to  form  there  a  perfect  canopy 
of  shade  to  serve  as  a  protection  to  the  young  and  tender  berries.  If 
let  alone,  the  branches  of  the  vine  will  throw  out  these  secondary 
shoots  near  the  top  of  the  branches,  thus  leaving  the  head  of  the  vine 
unprotected  from  the  sun.  The  shortening  in  of  the  branches  neces- 
sarily throws  the  new  shoots  to  the  center  of  the  vine.  A  not  less 
important  object  to  be  sought  by  the  summer  pruning  is  the  strength- 
ening of  the  young  branch.  In  May,  when  the  vines  are  covered  by 
the  young  and  vigorous  shoots,  they  are  yet  exceedingly  brittle,  and 
only  a  slight  pushing  is  required  to  break  the  branch  off  just  at  its 
junction  with  the  old  wood.  A  heavy  wind  at  this  time  sometimes 
does  an  immense  damage,  and  the  vineyard  will  look  as  though  every 
vine  had  been  dragged  over.  Half  of  the  branches  may  be  broken  and 
hang  partially  attached  to  one  side  of  the  vine.  A  single  wind  may 
ruin  two-thirds  of  the  crop.  This  can  only  be  prevented  by  the  sum- 
mer pruning  of  the  vines.  By  a  heavy  shortening  in  of  the  branches, 
the  latter  expose  so  much  less  surface  for  the  wind  to  act  on,  that  no 
branches  are  broken,  and  we  have  failed  to  see  the  heaviest  wind 
cause  any  noticeable  damage  in  vineyards  which  had  their  vines 
properly  shortened  in.  The  summer  pruning  in  no  way  injures  the 
vines.  The  sap  is  checked  in  its  flow  only  for  a  few  days,  and  within 
a  week  the  new  side  shoots  make  their  appearance.  But  the  vineyardist 
must  be  careful  not  to  summer  prune  after  the  hot  summer  weather  has 
set  in,  as  the  hot  weather  will  burn  or  scald  the  young  grapes  and  ruin 
them  entirely.  For  the  San  Joaquin  valley  raisin  districts,  I  cannot 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  129 

advise  summer  pruning  after  the  first  days  of  June;  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, somewhat  later.  Grapevines  on  sandy,  dry  and  poor  soil  should 
not  be  summer  pruned,  or  only  very  lightly  so.  They  have  not  strength 
to  start  a  new  growth  and  will  remain  stunted  all  through  the  season. 

Many  growers  of  Riverside,  El  Cajon  and  Fresno  consider  sum- 
mer pruning  beneficial,  if  not  necessary,  and  practice  it  every  year 
regularly.  It  is  necessary  to  summer  prune  heavily  or  not  at  all.  Cut 
back  one-half  of  the  growth,  or  cut  back  leaving  one  or  two  leaves 
above  the  bunch  of  grapes  on  every  cane.  If  the  young  canes  are  only 
topped,  the  secondary  branches  will  come  out  near  the  ends  of  the 
canes  and  bear  them  down,  in  time  exposing  the  bunches  to  the 
sun  as  well  as  causing  the  second  crop  to  grow  too  far  from  the  main 
trunk,  the  summer  pruning  thus  acting  the  opposite  of  which  it  was 
intended.  In  Greece  the  wine  grapevines  are  summer  pruned,  but 
the  currants  are  never  so  treated. 

Root-pruning. — The  pruning  of  the  roots  of  grapevines,  in  order 
to  cause  them  to  bear,  is  entirely  unnecessary,  and  is  never  done  by 
experienced  growers.  Some  growers  have  practiced  the  cutting  of  the 
surface  roots  of  the  vines  so  as  to  cause  the  tap  roots  or  the  main  roots 
to  go  farther  down,  and  they  claim  that  by  this  method  greater  crops 
are  harvested.  I  am  satisfied  this  is  only  a  theory  not  supported  by 
facts.  Surface  roots  are  as  necessary  to  plants  as  deep-soil  roots,  and 
serve  the  plants  in  their  way,  bringing  atmospheric  air  to  the  circu- 
lation in  the  roots.  If  too  many  surface  roots  are  formed,  it  is  a  sure 
indication  of  too  much  water  in  the  top  soil,  as  too  frequent  irrigation 
with  a  small  stream  of  water  will  cause  such  roots  to  form.  The 
proper  remedy  is  to  irrigate  less  frequently,  but  more  at  a  time.  The 
above  does  not  refer  to  the  pruning  of  the  roots  of  grafted  vines. 
In  cases  where  Muscats  have  been  grafted  on  resistant  stocks,  it  is  of 
importance  that  the  graft  should  not  make  roots  of  its  own,  as  these 
would  soon  overpower  the  stock  and  in  their  turn  succumb  to  the 
enemies  which  it  was  the  intention  to  avoid.  When  rooted  vines  are 
planted  in  the  vineyard,  their  roots  should  be  well  pruned,  and  all  dead 
and  decaying,  as  well  as  dried-up,  parts  should  be  removed.  If  they 
are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  vines,  they  will  draw  moisture  from  the 
sound  parts  at  a  time  when  all  the  moisture  is  needed  for  the  formation 
of  new  roots. 

Suckering. — The  object  of  this  process  is  to  relieve  the  raisin- vine  of 
superfluous  wood  before  the  latter  has  had  time  to  draw  on  the  strength 
of  the  vine  and  deprive  it  of  the  elements  necessary  to  support  The 
fruit-bearing  branches.  The  proper  time  for  suckering  is  early  in  the 
spring,  when  the  young  wood  is  yet  tender  and  easily  broken.  With 
a  hard  and  flat  piece  of  wood,  the  lower  suckers  are  dug  out  from 
below  the  ground,  while  the  upper  suckers  may  be  broken  by  hand. 
A  sucker  must  be  understood  to  be  any  branch  which  does  not  produce 
fruit  at  a  time  when  the  vine  is  old  enough  to  bear.  In  strong  and 
moist  soil  and  on  strong  vines  even  the  lowest  shoots  produce  grapes, 
and  can  therefore  hardly  be  called  suckers.  But  as  a  rule  even  they 
should  be  removed,  unless  we  have  a  special  object  in  view,  such  as 
renewing  the  trunk  of  the  vine,  lowering  its  head,  or  in  otherwise 
encouraging  the  lower  branches. 


130  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

While  few  vineyardists  take  sufficient  care  and  time  to  sucker  their 
vines,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  operation  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance, in  order  that  as  large  and  good  a  crop  as  possible  may  be  secured. 
It  is  not  only  best  to  remove  all  the  non-fruit-bearing  branches  which 
spring  out  from  the  root  and  the  trunk,  but  also  a  little  later  on,  after 
the  shoots  have  reached  a  foot  or  more,  to  cut  any  branch  from  the  head 
of  the  vine  which  does  not  produce  fruit.  In  many  instances,  how- 
ever, it  is  necessary  to  renew  the  head  of  the  vine,  and  for  that  pur- 
pose lower  suckers  may  be  allowed  to  grow.  For  a  year  or  two  these  are 
pruned  regularly  and  made  to  bear,  and  the  old  sickly  head  is  then 
removed- 

VARIOUS  VINEYARD  TOOI£. 

General  Notes. — It  is  not  my  intention  to  here  describe  the  various 
tools  used  in  the  vineyard  so  minutely  that  they  can  be  made  after  the 
description,  but  simply  to  enumerate  and  call  attention  to  them  in  order 
that  as  little  repetition  as  necessary  may  be  made.  Every  local  black- 
smith or  mechanic  invents,  improves  or  patents  vineyard  tools  of  every 
description,  and  almost  every  year  sees  new  tools  introduced  and 
older  ones  discarded.  Still  a  few  of  these  tools  have  become  standard, 
and  modifications  of  them  are  not  always  improvements. 

The  Sheep' s-f pot. — This  is  a  very  useful  tool  in  planting  grape  cut- 
tings. It  consists  of  a  round  rod  of  three-eighths-inch  iron  and  about 
three  and  one-half  feet  long,  furnished  with  a  cross  handle  at  the  upper 
end.  The  lower  end  is  very  slightly  flattened  out  and  split  to  a  depth 
of  one  and  one-half  inches,  the  cleft  thus  formed  being  a  little  wider 
at  the  point  of  the  bar,  while  the  interior  angle  of  the  cleft  should  be 
rounded  in  order  that  the  cutting  may  not  be  cut.  The  sheep' s-foot  is 
used  in  very  soft  ground  only,  where  it  can  be  pushed  down  readily. 
In  planting,  the  lower  joint  of  the  cutting  is  grasped  by  the  cleft  in 
the  rod,  and  both  are  pushed  down  together  to  the  required  depth.  A 
twist  is  then  given  the  handle,  so  as  to  get  the  rod  loose  from  the  cut- 
ting. The  rod  is  then  pulled  up,  and  a  tamp  with  the  foot  sets  the 
ground  solid  round  the  cutting.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  cutting 
is  not  pulled  up  with  the  rod,  as  it  will  prove  fatal  to  the  cutting. 

The  Planting  Bar. — This  bar  is  used  also  in  loose  ground  free  from 
rocks.  It  consists  of  a  flat  bar  of  iron  two  and  one-half  inches  wide, 
from  three-eighths  to  one-half  inch  thick  and  three  and  one-half  feet 
long,  and  is  furnished  at  the  upper  end  with  a  handle.  In  using  this 
bar,  it  is  first  pushed  in  the  ground,  and  a  hole  is  made  for  the  cutting. 
The  cutting  is  then  pushed  down  into  the  hole,  the  bar  inserted  along- 
side of  it  and  pressed  forward,  in  order  toBll  the  hole  and  set  the  soil 
solid  around  the  cutting. 

The  Dibble. — This  "tool  is  simply  a  hard  piece  of  oak  wood,  with  a 
curved  handle  and  pointed.  It  is  a  most  useful  instrument  when  the 
vines  are  being  pruned.  By  means  of  it  the  soil  is  scraped  off  from 
around  the  trunk  of  the  vine,  to  enable  the  pruner  to  cut  off  the 
suckers  as  close  to  the  trunk  as  possible.  Every  pruner  should  be 
furnished  with  a  dibble. 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  131 

Planting  Chains. — These  are  best  made  of  twisted  wire,  such  as  is 
used  for  clothes  lines.  I^ines  made  of  cotton  or  hemp  are  apt  to  stretch 
when  dry,  and  shrink  when  wet.  Copper  wires  are  inserted  to  mark 
the  distances  at  which  the  vines  should  be  planted. 

Spades. — Spades  are  often  used  for  planting.  I/mg-handled  spades 
are  more  useful  than  those  with  short  handles. 

Hoes. — Besides  the  common,  heavy  hoes,  very  useful  hoes  can  be 
made  of  old  shovels  which  are  too  worn  to  be  of  account  as  such. 
New  handles  are  set  on  the  shovel  blades  at  a  right  or  sharp  angle, 
thus  transforming  them  into  veritable  hoes.  With  these  tools  much 
more  work  can  be  accomplished  than  with  the  common,  manufactured 
hoe,  which  never  cuts  well.  The  large,  flat-faced  Italian  hoe  imported 
to  this  country  from  Italy  is  a  most  admirable  instrument  when 
planting  cuttings  in  nursery  rows.  In  fact  it  is  then  indispensable. 

Plows. — Of  plows,  heavy  double  plows  for  two  horses  are  used  for 
plowing  in  the  center  between  the  rows,  and  smaller  plows  for  plowing 
closer  to  the  vines.  As  these  can  be  had  everywhere,  and  as  every 
grower  has  his  own  preferences,  no  description  of  them  is  required. 

Cultivators. — These  are  indispensable  in  the  vineyard,  and  various 
models  are  in  use.  The  common,  diamond-shovel  cultivator  for  both 
one  and  two  horses  is  indispensable  in  every  vineyard.  The  larger 
one  of  these  may  be  greatly  improved  by  affixing  to  the  posterior 
shovels  a  cutter-bar,  which  should  stand  horizontal  and  on  a  level  with 
the  center  of  the  posterior  shovels. 

Randel  Disc  Cultivators.  —  These  are  useful  in  ground  that  has 
baked  before  the  lately  planted  cuttings  have  begun  to  bud.  They 
seldom  cut  or  injure  any  of  the  cuttings,  and  the  whole  field  may  be 
gone  over  regardless  of  rows  or  cuttings. 

The  Ash  Trough. — The  ash  trough  consists  of  a  long  trough  on 
wheels,  all  made  of  galvanized  iron,  and  furnished  with  numerous 
perforated  holes.  It  is  drawn  by  two  or  more  horses  through  the  vine- 
yard, and  the  cuttings  are  burned  in  it  as  it  goes  along,  and  the  ashes 
are  scattered  over  the  soil.  As  yet  this  trough  is  only  used  in  a  few 
of  the  largest  vineyards,  but  when"  perfected  will  be  useful  every- 
where, as  by  its  aid  the  ashes  may  be  saved  for  the  vines  instead  of 
being  wasted  as  is  now  so  often  the  case. 

Sulphuring  Cans  or  Bellows. — These  are  of  various  shapes  and  pat- 
terns. The  cans  have  been  superseded  by  the  simple  little  burlap  bag, 
which  does  the  same  or  better  work.  The  bellows  are  similar  to  com- 
mon bellows,  but  are  furnished  with  a  distributing  nozzle  and  with  an 
air  opening  through  which  the  sulphur  can  be  poured. 

The  Cutter- sled. — This  is  simply  a  sled  four  feet  long  by  two  and  a 
half  feet  wide  or  more,  under  which  has  been  fixed  a  horizontal  bar  of 
iron  in  the  shape  of  a  shallow  U.  It  is  used  in  the  vineyard  after  the 
plowing  and  cultivation  is  finished,  and  when  it  is  of  importance  to 
kill  the  few  regaining  weeds.  The  driver  stands  on  the  sled,  which  is 
pulled  by  one  or  two  horses.  It  cuts  all  the  weeds  below  the  soil,  and 
is  a  most  effective  and  useful  tool. 

Vineyard  Trucks. — These  useful  trucks  are  California  inventions, 
and  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  grower.  They  are  now  made  of 


132  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

various  sizes,  but  should  never  be  over  four  feet  wide,  while  three  feet 
is  even  better,  and  their  length  should  not  exceed  six  feet.  They  are 
made  to  turn  readily  anywhere  by  having  the  front  wheels  or  wheel 
movable,  independently  of  the  balance  of  the  truck.  By  the  aid  of 
these  trucks  the  grower  can  use  horse  labor  in  distributing  his  boxes 
and  travs  in  the  vineyard,  even  where  the  vines  are  planted  so  close 
that  ordinary  wagons  cannot  pass.  The  vineyard  truck  is  now  used 
in  all  Fresno  vineyards,  and  is  considered  almost  indispensable.  The 
first  truck  ever  made  for  this  purpose  was  designed  and  invented  by 
J.  T.  Goodman  of  Fresno. 

Shears. — These  should  be  of  the  very  best  make  of  soft  steel,  and 
furnished  with  double  springs.  So  far  no  good  pruning  shears  are 
manufactured  in  this  country,  the  best  make  coming  from  Switzerland, 
and  retailed  here  at  $3.00  per  pair.  It  pa3^s  any  grower  to  buy  the 
best  shears,  as  inferior  ones  not  only  last  but  a  short  time,  but  also  do 
poor  and  slow  work,  and  in  the  long  run  cost  more  than  the  best  and 
most  expensive  make.  With  a  good  pair  a  pruner  can  in  a  day  cut 
fifty  per  cent  more  than  with  a  poor  pair,  and  from  ten  to  twenty-five 
per  cent  more  than  with  an  ordinary  pair.  It  therefore  can  be  readily 
seen  how  the  extra  price  can  be  saved  in  the  first  day  or  two.  Such 
fine  shears  should  be  handled  and  cared  for  very  much  like  a  razor. 
They  should  never  be  ground  on  a  revolving  stone,  but  only  honed 
with  oil  on  a  fine  hone.  When  the  season  is  over  they  should  be  oiled, 
looked  over  and  laid  away.  Large  shears  with  wooden  handles  are 
not  needed  for  Muscat  vines.  The  best  size  shear  is  the  medium  size, 
which  can  be  used  with  one  hand. 


DRYING  AND   CURING. 

CALIFORNIA  SUN-DRIED   RAISINS. 

Note. — In  describing  the  processes  of  drying,  curing,  packing,  assort- 
ing, etc. ,  I  have  followed  only  methods  which  should  be  used  by  every 
conscientious  raisin  grower  and  packer.  These  methods  are  now 
actually  in  use,  not  by  every  packer  and  grower,  but  by  the  best  of 
them,  by  those  who  strive  to  produce  a  very  superior  article,  which 
will  compare  favorably  with  and  compete  successfully  with  the  best 
products  of  Malaga  or  other  foreign  raisin  districts.  Too  much  poor 
curing  and  packing  is  done  in  every  raisin  district,  to  the  great  detri- 
ment of  the  district,  its  growers  and  its  packers.  The  cause  of  so 
much  poor  work  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  method  of  selling  the 
raisins  in  bulk  for  a  previously  fixed  sum,  whether  the  crop  is  good, 
bad  or  indifferent.  For  many  years  no  inducements  were  held  out  to 
the  grower  to  produce  a  very  superior  article,  and  as  a  consequence 
the  packer  got  very  little  first-class  raisins  to  pack.  When  raisins  are 
paid  for  according  to  their  quality  alone,  there  will  be  plenty  of  first- 
class  raisins,  and  both  packers  and  growers  will  be  the  gainers.  The 
former  will  get  more  first-class  fruit  to  pack,  the  latter  will  find  it  to 
their  advantage  to  produce  it.  During  the  last  season  (1889  to  1890), 
a  change  was  inaugurated,  and  a  grading  of  prices  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  raisins  has  been  insisted  on.  When  this  system  is 
fully  carried  out,  and  when  the  grower  knows  at  the  beginning  of  the 
season  that  he  can  get  a  higher  price  for  his  superior  raisins,  Cali- 
fornia will  produce  as  high-grade  raisins  as  Malaga  or  any  other  raisin 
district.  Already  now  our  average  raisins  are  better  than  the  average 
Malagas,  and  all  that  our  growers  ask  for  are  inducements  to  produce 
the  best.  With  a  view  to  promote  the  attainment  of  these  expecta- 
tions, the  following  has  been  written.  Raisins  may  be  produced  by 
cheaper  methods  than  those  which  I  advocate,  but  only  great  care, 
judgment  and  study  will  accomplish  the  best  results.  In  the  raisin 
industry  it  pays  to  produce  the  best,  and  to  attain  this  very  little  extra 
care  is  required. 

Time  of  Ripening. — Varying  with  different  localities  and  seasons, 
the  Muscat  grape  ripens  in  California  between  the  xoth  of  August  and 
the  30th  of  September.  The  earliest  points  where  raisin  grapes  are 
now  grown  are  probably  Palm  Valley  in  San  Bernardino  county  and 
the  plains  of  Kern  county.  In  both  these  localities  Muscats  have 
been  known  to  be  ripe  as  early  as  July,  but  neither  locality  has  yet 
produced  any  great  quantity  of  raisins,  and  can  hardly  be  considered 
as  a  raisin  center.  The  earliness  c3f  the  San  Joaquin  valley  generally 
is  probably  caused  by  its  small  elevation  above  the  sea,  which  is  about 
three  hundred  feet  for  Fresno,  and  increasing  as  we  go  farther  south. 
San  Bernardino  county  again,  sa^Bliat  later  as  to  ripening,  is,  as  far 


134  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

as  its  raisin  centers  are  concerned,  more  elevated,  or  from  one  thousand 
to  two  thousand  feet  or  more.  The  nearness  to  the  sea  has  there  also 
some  influence  to  retard  the  maturing  of  the  grapes,  and  it  is  certain 
that  in  Southern  California  the  later  ripening  of  the  raisin  grapes  is 
principally  due  to  this  cause.  Thus  the  picking  in  Riverside  com- 
mences between  the  loth  and  the  3oth  of  September,  and  while  the 
other  raisin  districts  in  the  southern  part  of  California  may  vary  some, 
still  the  ripening  season  coincides  very  nearly  with  that  of  Riverside. 
In  Highlands  the  grapes  are  said  to  ripen  two  weeks  later  than  at 
Riverside.  In  El  Cajon  the  grapes  ripen  between  the  ist  and  loth  of 
September.  In  Fresno  the  Muscatel  raisin  grapes  ripen  in  the  end 
of  August,  and  generally  by  the  2Oth  of  August  the  picking  has 
begun  everywhere  on  the  drier  soils,  while  on  the  wet  soils  it  is  gen- 
erally retarded  from  one  to  two  weeks.  As  a  rule  the  dryness  of  the 
soil  influences  considerably  the  ripening  of  the  grapes,  and  even  the 
quality  of  the  soil  is  not  without  some  influence,  as  on  sandy,  warm 
soil  grapes  ripen  much  earlier  than  on  heavy  land.  As  an  illustra- 
tion of  such  early  ripening,  we  may  mention  that,  on  certain  gravelly 
soils  northwest  or  north  of  Santa  Ana,  the  Muscat  grapes  ripen  two 
weeks  earlier  than  on  the  heavier  and  finer  soils  in  the  immediate 
vicinity.  The  growers  take  advantage  of  this  early  ripening  to  sell 
their  Muscat  grapes  fresh  instead  of  drying  them. 

In  Salt  river  and  Gila  valleys  in  Arizona  the  grapes  are  said  to  ripen 
much  earlier  than  in  California,  but  so  far  the  vineyards  there  are  not 
old  enough  to  have  been  greatly  benefited  by  this  early  ripening.  On 
the  plains  of  Kern  county  the  ripening  is  hastened  by  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  and  possibly  also  by  the  nearness  to  the  desert  and  the  desert 
wind,  by  the  greater  distance  from  the  sea,  and  by  a  less  amount  of 
rainfall.  In  Malaga  the  grapes  ripen  several  weeks  earlier  than  in 
Fresno;  in  fact,  the  whole  Mediterranean  region  seems  to  be  earlier 
than  California.  As  a  general  rule,  we  may  state  that  the  Muscat 
grapes  ripen  later  in  Southern  California  than  in  the  central  portion 
of  the  State.  In  regard  to  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  valleys,  the 
farther  we  go  towards  the  south  the  earlier  do  the  grapes  ripen. 
But  in  every  district  there  are  localities  which  are  earlier  than  others. 
The  Muscat  and  Muscatel  ripen  earlier  than  the  Sultana,  which  latter 
grape  begins  to  ripen  earlier  than  the  Muscat,  but  attains  perfection 
much  later  than  any  other  of  our  raisin  grapes.  Thompson  Seedless 
ripens  in  Yolo  about  August  loth,  and  is  thus  our  earliest  raisin  grape. 
Signs  of  Maturity. — There  are  three  different  ways  by  which  the 

M  ripeness  of  a  grape  can  be  tested, — saccharometer,  taste  or  color.    The 

saccharometer  is  a  well-known  instrument,  consisting  of  a  graded  glass 

V  tube  that  will  sink  to  different  depths  in  liquors  containing  different 

percentages  of  sugar.      There  are  different  kinds  of  saccharometers, 

but    the   most    practical   one   for    the   general   raisin-grower   is   one 

divided  in  one  hundred  degrees,  each  degree  showing  one  per  cent  of 

sugar  to  every  hundred  of  water.     Thus,  if  the  saccharometer  sinks 

down  to  twenty-five,  we  know  that  the  water  or  must  contains  twenty- 

/  five  per  cent  of  saccharine  water  and  seventy-five  per  cent  of  water. 

\J   To  properly  test  the  grapes,  a  few  bunches  should  be  picked  from 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  135 

several  vines,  the  juice  should  be  squeezed  out  and  passed  through 
a  towel  or  otherwise  strained.  The  must  is  then  poured  into  the  test 
tube,  and  the  saccharometer  inserted.  If  it  shows  twenty-five  degrees 
or  more  of  sugar,  the  grapes  will  make  good  raisins,  but  for  very- 
superior  raisins  several  degrees  more  of  saccharine  are  needed.  It 
is  not  unusual  to  find  the  grapes  reach  thirty  degrees  in  favored 
localities  and  in  favorable  seasons.  Only  inexperienced  vineyardists 
will  require  the  aid  of  the  saccharometer  to  determine  the  state  of 
ripening  of  the  grapes;  the  more  experienced  judge  by  taste  and  color. 

The  taste  of  course  is  the  most  commonly  used  method  for  ascertain- 
ing the  ripeness  of  the  raisin  grapes.  Every  grower  experienced  or 
not  should  examine  his  grapes  repeatedly.  To  give  directions  for 
tasting  the  ripeness  of  the  grapes  is  of  course  impossible;  it  must  be 
learned,  and  can  only  be  learned  by  practice.  It  is  enough  to  say 
here  that  the  grapes  should  taste  very  sweet,  contain  no  acid,  and  if 
possible  be  rather  solid. 

The  color  is  also  a  valuable  adjunct  in  determining  the  ripeness  of 
the  raisin  grapes.  Fully  ripe  and  perfect  fruit  should  be  amber  yel- 
low, somewhat  transparent  and  waxy.  If  this  color  is  combined  with 
great  sweetness,  and  in  Muscatels  with  absence  of  acidity,  we  can  be 
sure  that  the  grapes  are  ripe.  Some  grapes  do,  however,  especially 
when  too  much  exposed  to  the  sun,  acquire  the  yellow  amber  tint 
without  being  sweet,  but  they  are  readily  distinguished  from  the  ripe 
grapes  by  their  being  of  smaller  size  and  harder,  tasteless  and  acid. 
Such  grapes  never  develop  into  good,  mature  grapes,  and  do  not  make 
good  raisins.  I  may  also  remark  that  not  all  ripe  grapes  become 
amber  colored.  Those  that  grow  in  the  shade  and  on  very  damp 
ground  remain  always  green,  although  they  acquire  a  certain  sweet- 
ness, and  will  make  good  raisins.  The  Muscat  grapes  will  make 
salable  raisins  even  if  not  fully  ripe,  but  in  order  to  make  superior 
and  good  raisins  all  grapes  should  be  "dead"  ripe,  especially  so  if 
the  grapes  are  to  be  dipped  in  lye.  If  unripe  or  partially  ripe  grapes 
of  Muscats  and  Sultanas  are  dipped,  they  make  very  poor  and  red 
raisins;  it  would  have  been  bettep  if  they  had  never  been  dipped. 
This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  Sultana,  which  begins  to  ripen 
and  is  eatable  long  before  the  Muscat,  but  which  only  makes  a  good 
dipped  raisin  after  the  Muscat  has  been  ripe  for  some  time.  Three 
or  four  days  make  a  great  difference  sometimes  in  the  amount  of 
sugar  in  the  grapes,  and  consequently  in  the  quality  of  the  raisins, 
and  the  experienced  grower  will  keep  his  grapes  on  the  vines  as  long 
as  possible  to  attain  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  sweetness.  But 
on  the  other  hand  it  takes  judgment  to  foresee  how  sweet  the  grapes 
will  be,  as  in  unfavorable  seasons  they  will  not  attain  their  full  sweet- 
ness even  if  allowed  to  hang  long  on  the  vines.  To  know  the  time 
after  which  the  grapes  do  not  increase  in  sugar  requires  much  expe- 
rience and  acquaintance  with  the  locality  where  they  are  grown.  In 
this  respect  different  years  vary  very  much. 

Picking. — Many  vineyardists  pick  their  raisins  too  green  or  before 
they  are  fully  ripe.  Not  all  raisins  ripen  at  the  same  time,  and  to 
make  the  best  possible  raisins  out  of  the  grapes,  it  is  necessary  to  pick 


136  l-s»*  TH^    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 


^hJV 

bfv- 


over  the  vineyard  several  times,  each  time  picking  only  the  ripest 
grapes.  In  places  where  there  are  two  crops  of  grapes,  at  least  two 
pickings  are  absolutely  necessary,  and  in  many  places  two  pickings 
are  enough.  The  green  grapes  of  the  first  crop  are  then  left  to  be 
picked  with  the  second  crop,  at  which  time  they  will  probably  be 
perfectly  ripe  and  very  choice.  But  if  the  vineyard  is  small  and  man- 
ageable, and  the  owner  wishes  to  realize  the  most  that  he  possibly  can, 
he  should  make  at  least  three  different  pickings,  each  time  taking 
/care  only  to  pick  those  grapes  which  are  fully  ripe  and  which  would 
/  make  a  first-class  quality  of  raisins.  As  long  as  the  smaller  vineyardists 
sell  their  raisins  in  bulk  at  a  contracted  price  of  so  much  a  pound  for 
any  kind  or  quality  of  raisins,  we  cannot  expect  any  great  improve- 
ment in  the  too  common  mode  of  picking,  \viiere  good,  bad  and  iad  f- 
ferent  grapes  go  on  the  trays  together.  But  i  am  certain  that  in  a  few 
years  this  will  or  must  change.  Raisins  in  sweatboxes  will  bring  the 
price  they  are  actually  worth,  and  it  will  be  to  the  interest  of  every 
grower  to  pick  his  grapes  at  the  time  they  will  make  the  best  possible 
raisins,  even  if  extra  labor  is  required  for  the  work.  The  pickers 
'generally  use  small,  pointed  knives  for  separating  the  bunches,  and 
they  are  preferable  to  small  shears,  as  better  enabling  the  picker  to 
reach  farther  in  between  bunches  and  branches,  and  to  cut  the  former 
I  without  injuring  the  branch. 

In  picking  the  bunches,  great  care  should  be  taken,  much  more  than 
is  at  present  in  use.  It  is  always  best  to  begin  picking  in  the  poorest 
part  of  the  vineyard,  as  it  will  take  some  time  for  the  pickers  to  learn; 
they  are  almost  certain  to  pick  in  the  beginning  too  many  green  grapes. 
The  poorest  part  of  the  vineyard  is  also  apt  to  have  the  ripest  grapes. 
The  large,  fine  bunches  should  be  handled  with  the  utmost  care,  in 
order  that  the  bloom  of  the  grapes  may  not  be  injured.  The  bunches 
generally  should  be  handled  by  the  stems  oglv^r.  if  this  is  imprac- 
ticable, by  the  stem  as  much  as  possible.  In  separating  a  largejjunch 
from  the  vine,  the  bunch  should  be  cut  as  close  to  the  stem  as  possi- 
ble, and  at  the  end  of  the  stem  of  the  bunch  there  should  remain  a 
portion  of  that  broader  part  by  which  the  bunch  is  attached  to  the 
mjiin_branch.  There  is  nothing  prettier  on  a  bunch  of  raisins  than 
this  broad  end  of  thlTbunch;  it  gives  an  idea  of  strength  and  oddity 
to  the  raisin  cluster,  showing  the  buyer  at  a  glance  that  it  is  a  cluster 
which  was  once  solidly  attached  to  the  vine.  Many  raisin-packers 
place  this  broad  end  of  the  bunch  so  as  to  protrude  above  or  between 
the  berries,  as  if  inviting  the  purchaser  to  take  hold  of  it  and  thus 
lift  the  luscious  bunch  out  of  the  box.  With  the  poorer  and  smaller 
bunches,  no  such  care  in  cutting  need  be  exercised,  and  it  would  be 
to  no  benefit  to  so  cut  a  small,  poor  bunch  that  it  would  cause  the 
purchaser  to  belive  it  was  a  large  bunch.  Poorer  bunches  might  there- 
fore be  cut  with  short  stems.  As  to  the  handling  of  the  bunches,  the 
intelligent  grower  will  soon  learn  how  to  instruct  his  men.  If  vine 
branches  interfere  with  the  lifting  of  the  bunch  from  the  vine,  some 
of  them  may  be  cut  without  any  injury  to  the  vine,  but  too  many 
branches  cut  this  way  will  cause  a  new  growth  to  start,  which  often  is 
derived  from  the  best  fruit  buds  for  the  ensuing  season,  and  which 
always  is  apt  to  be  injured  from  frost. 


\  \   y>   ^  THI*    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  137 

.     '    V 

A  picker  should  average  not  less  than  fifty  trays  a  day  of  cleaned 
and  assorted  grapes.  At  this  rate  the  picking  of  twenty  pounds  of  u 
grapes  costsTaBouT  two  and  a  half  cents.  Some  persons  employing 
white  labor  claimed  to  have  lowered  the  cost  of  picking  to  one  and 
three-quarter  cents  per  tray  of  twenty  pounds,  but  I  failed  to  learn  how 
these  grapes  had  been  handled,  cleaned  and  assorted.  The  picking 
of  the  grapes  is  facilitated  by  previous  care  given  the  vines.  Neglected  ' 
and  entangled  vines  are  much  more  difficult  and  expensive  to  pick 
than  those  which  have  been  properly  cared  for  and  correctly  pruned 
the  season  before.  The  same  may  be  said  as  regards  vines  between 
the  branches  of  which  weeds  have  been  allowed  to  grow.  In  picking 
from  such  vines,  the  grapes  are  always  torn,  the  best  bunches  destroyed 
and  many  grapes  wasted  on  the  ground. 


Raisin  Vineyard  Truck. 

Cleaning. — When  the  bunch  is  picked  or  cut  from  the  stem,  it  should  \* 
be  cleaned.  If  it  is  a  first-class  or  even  an  ordinary  layer  bunch,  every  X) 
sunburnt  berry,  every  leaf,  twig  or  other  conspicuous  foreign  substance, 
must  be  carefully  removed  with  the  picker's  right  hand,  while  the  left 
hand  holds  the  bunch  by  the  stem.  This  cleaning  must  some  time  be ! , 
done,  and  at  no  time  can  it  be  performed  with  better  results  than  when 
the  grapes  are  green.  The  stems  are  then  soft  and  flexible,  while  later  on 
they  are  brittle,  and  in  endeavoring  to  remove  foreign  substances  many 
berries  will  be  detached,  or  sometimes  even  the  whole  bunch  broken. 
This  cleaning  of  the  bunch  does  not  need  to  extend  to  third-rate  or 
small  bunches,  which  are  to  be  used  for  loose  raisins.  The  latter 
can  be  cleaned  very  rapidly  with  machinery,  and  it  would  only  be  a 
waste  of  time  to  clean  them  by  hand-picking.  The  use  of  a  pair  of 
bellows  is  also  very  practical.  With  them  much  of  the  spider  webs 
and  smaller  refuse  can  be  removed,  which  could  not  be  gotten  rid  of 
in  any  other  way.  A  few  hands  should  therefore  go  over  all  finer 
bunches  and  blow  them  clean,  especially  if  sand  or  dust  have  accumu- 
lated on  the  trays  or  bunches.  If  the  grapes  are  carefully  assorted 
when  picked,  and  the  different  grades  placed  on  separate  trays  as  they 
should  be,  this  cleaning  is  done  rapidly,  as  the  largest  part  of  the 
crop,  which  only  will  make  loose  raisins,  need  not  be  cleaned. 

Drying  on  Trays. — As  soon  as  the  grapes  begin  to  ripen,  the  trays 
should  be  distributed  along  the  rows  in  the  vineyard.  They  may 
either  first  be  placed  in  piles  at  every  row  where  the  roads  cross  the 
vineyard,  or  at  once  distributed  along  the  vines.  The  former  method 


138  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

is  to  be  preferred,  as  it  protects  the  trays  from  dirt  and  dust,  and  in  dis- 

J  tributing  afterwards  it  gives  the  pickers  a  more  varied  labor,  often 
welcome  as  a  change  from  the  cramped  position  necessary  in  picking. 
Muscat  vines  in  proper  bearing  require  one  or  two  trays  to  the  vine, 
while  for  young  vines  one  tray  will  suffice.  The  probable  quantity 
needed  should  be  ascertained  beforehand  in  order  that  the  trays  may 
be  properly  distributed.  The  ripe  grapes  are  always  placed  directly  on 
the  trays,  and  not  previously  picked  in  boxes.  In  placing  the  bunches 
on  the  trays,  the  proper  way  for  each  picker  should  be  to  have  two 
trays,  one  for  each  grade.  On  one  tray  he  places  all  the  large 
bunches  that  promise  to  make  first-class  bunch  raisins;  on  the  other 

f  tray  he  places  again  all  inferior  bunches  and  loose  berries.  The 
smaller  bunches  and  loose  berries  may  be  placed  any  way  almost,  as 
long  as  they  are  not  heaped  on  top  of  each  other.  The  largest  bunches 
should  be  placed  with  the  stem  side  down,  as  this  side  will,  when 
cured,  become  the  finest  and  will  eventually  by  the  careful  packer  be 
placed  upwards  in  the  box.  That  part  of  the  raisin  which  in  drying 
touches  the  tray  will  also  present,  when  cured,  a  flat  surface  with 
several  concentric  layers,  which  are  considered  a  prominent  feature 
in  the  perfect  raisin. 

The  general  method  of  drying  is,  however,  to  place  good,  bad  and 

v  indifferent  bunches  together  on  the  same  tray,  with  no  attempt  at 
assorting.  While  this  method  may  do  when  superior  raisins  are  not 
required,  and  when  no  higher  price  is  paid  for  better  grades,  it  will  be 
found  a  very  inferior  practice  when  the  grower  desires  to  pack  himself, 
in  order  to  reap  all  the  benefit  he  can  out  of  his  crop.  For  all  superior 
raisins,  I  therefore  strongly  recommend  the  assorting  of  the  raisins  on 
the  trays  as  having  the  following  advantages.  It  requires  less  handling 
of  the  large  bunches.  The  large  bunches  dry  the  slowest,  and  by 
having  them  from  the  beginning  separated  from  the  small  and  the 
loose  the  latter  can  be  brought  away  to  the  sweatboxes,  when  ready, 
without  necessitating  the  reasserting  and  handling  from  the  trays, 
which  at  this  time,  when  the  stems  are  very  brittle,  is  always  expen- 
sive as  well  as  injurious  to  the  fine  bunches.  The  larger  bunches, 
which  are  to  produce  layer  raisins,  require  less  drying,  as  they  are  to 
be  sweated  or  equalized  before  being  packed.  The  smaller  and  inferior 
bunches,  on  the  contrary,  must  be  stemmed  and  assorted  by  machinery 
before  they  are  equalized,  and  immediately  after  they  are  taken  from 
the  trays.  In  order  to  "stem"  readily  these  raisins  must  be  rather 
overdried,  as  if  soft  they  would  tear  from  the  stems  instead  of  having 
the  latter  broken.  We  can  therefore  perceive  the  advantage  of  having 
the  two  grades  on  different  trays.  Without  the  necessity  of  assorting 
we  can  simply  take  up  our  "layer"  trays  when  they  are  ready  and 
allow  our  ' '  loose ' '  to  remain  as  long  out  as  necessary,  without  fear  of 
having  the  layers  overdried.  By  this  assorting  when  green,  each  grade 
can  be  treated  separately  in  a  quick  and  effective  way. 

A  tray  two  by  three  feet  may  be  made  to  comfortably  hold  from 

^  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  grapes.  The  first  crop  should  be  placed 
pretty  close  on  the  trays,  not  allowing  any  part  of  the  tray  to  be 
visible,  as  the  reflected  heat  will  be  too  great  and  may  injure  the 
raisins.  The  second  crop  should  be  packed  less  close,  as  the  reflected 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  139 

heat  from  the  surface  of  the  tray  will  help  to  dry  the  grapes.  This 
of  course  only  refers  to  localities  where  the  temperature  during  the  first 
drying  is  very  high.  The  warmer  it  is  the  closer  should  the  bunches 
be  packed  on  the  trays,  and  on  the  contrary  when  later  on  in  the 
season,  or  when  the  drying  weather  is  unfavorable,  plenty  of  space 
should  be  given  the  grapes.  It  is  often  said  that  grapes,  to  make  good 
raisins,  should  not  only  dry,  but  cure.  There  is  much  truth  in  this. 
Good  raisins  should  dry  and  cure  at  the  same  time,  by  which  is  meant 
that  a  chemical  process  is  taking  place,  which  is  something  else  than 
the  mere  evaporation  of  the  water  in  the  grape.  The  heat  necessary 
and  favorable  for  drying  the  grapes  is  different  in  different  localities. 
At  certain  temperatures  the  raisins  will  get  cooked  and  spoil,  assume 
a  red  color,  lose  their  sweetness,  become  sour  and  hard,  and  covered 
with  large,  sharply  defined  corrugations, — signs  of  a  very  inferior  or 
even  entirely  worthless  raisin.  In  Riverside  the  grapes  are  said  to 
cook  at  from  98  to  100  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  the  shade.  In  Frenso 
the  grapes  dry  and  cure  well  up  to  a  temperature  of  105  degrees,  and 
in  El  Cajon  they  do  not  spoil  until  103  degrees  are  reached.  I  would 
think  that  from  90  to  103  degrees  in  the  shade  would  be  the  best 
temperature  for  drying  perfectly  ripe  and  sweet  Muscat  grapes.  When 
the  grapes  are  very  ripe,  a  much  higher  temperature  will  not  injure 
them,  while  unripe  and  sour  grapes,  especially  of  the  second  crop, 
will  burn  or  cook  at  a  lower  temperature  than  would  be  the  proper 
one  for  ripe  grapes. 

It  is  not  always  advisable  to  stop  picking  when  the  heat  becomes  ./• 
too  great.  A  better  method  is  to  stack  the  trays  in  the  field,  so  as  to 
protect  the  raisins  from  the  sun.  When  the  heat  subsides,  the  trays 
are  again  spread.  The  expense  and  trouble  of  stacking  the  trays  is 
not  as  great  as  may  be  supposed,  and  a  few  hours  will  generally 
suffice  to  stack  a  large  vineyard  with  the  regular^picking  gang. 
Some  packers  have  suggested  that  to  secure  good  raisins  the  trays 
should  be  stacked  for  several  weeks  in  the  beginning  of  the  period  of 
drying.  For  the  production  of  our  usual  dark-colored  raisins  this  is 
not  necessary  nor  even  advisable,  .except  when  the  heat  is  such  that 
the  raisins  would  cook  and  spoil.  With  a  little  experience  this  cook- 
ing of  the  grapes  can  be  readily  detected  by  the  smell  emitted  by  the 
grapes,  As  soon  as  they  are  in  the  least  injured  by  the  heat,  a  cooked 
flavor  begins  to  pervade  the  whole  vineyard.  When  this  peculiar 
flavor  is  noticed,  and  when  the  berries  begin  to  show  small  red  and 
soft  blotches  on  the  side  facing  the  afternoon  sun,  the  stacking  should 
be  commenced  as  quickly  as  possible.  If  the  trays  are  kept  in  piles 
for  several  days,  the  injured  grapes  will  partially  recover  and  at  least 
to  some  extent  regain  their  color.  Greatly  injured  grapes  will  dry 
much  slower,  sometimes  remaining  several  weeks  behind  those  which 
were  not  injured  by  the  sun.  Slightly  discolored  raisins  may  partially 
regain  their  color  by  sweating,  but  they  will  not  improve  otherwise. 

After  the  trays  are  filled  with  grapes,  the  best  way  is  to  put  several  ^/ 
rows  of  trays  together,  or  rather  to  place  the  trays  from  three  rows  of 
vines  along  one  of  the  spaces  between  the  rows.     This  gives  more 
compactness  to  the   crop,  makes  it  easier  to  handle  the  trays,  and 


140 


RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 


facilitates  the  stacking  of  the  trays,  their  turning  and  reversing,  or 
any  labor  with  the  trays  that  may  be  required.  By  thus  clearing  some 
of  the  spaces  between  the  rows,  admission  for  trucks  and  wagons  is 
had  close  to  the  trays. 

Turning. — After  the  grapes  have  been  exposed  to  the  sun  for  some 
days,  they  must  be  turned.  By  this  time  it  will  be  found  that  the 
grapes  have  dried  principally  on  the  upper  side,  while  the  lower  side 
is  yet  comparatively  green.  The  time  when  the  turning  of  the  grapes 
V  should  be  done  depends  entirely  on  the  weather.  One-half  of  the 
drying  process  should  be  over,  and  this  requires  a  longer  or  shorter 
time.  When  the  time  for  turning  is  at  hand,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
under  side  of  the  grapes,  or  rather  the  side  of  each  berry  that  was 
placed  against  the  trays,  has  flattened  out  and  shows  concentric 
circles,  which  are  considered  of  much  beauty,  and  greatly  valued  in 
all  good  raisins.  When  they  are  well  formed  and  established,  it  is 
generally  time  to  turn.  If  the  grapes  are  turned  before  these  con- 
centric circles  are  hardened,  the  latter  will  open  and  become  less  dis- 
tinct. Another  objection  to  turning  too  early  is  that  the  upper  side 
of  the  grapes,  if  not  properly  dried  before  turning,  will  dry  but  very 
slowly  afterwards,  and  often  so  slowly  that  the  raisins  may  have  to  be 
turned  a  second  time,  which  will  prove  both  expensive  and  to  the  disad- 
I  vantage  of  the  raisins.  One  turning  is  always  enough,  and  the  only 
[  one  proper.  There  are  several  ways  to  turn.  The  Malaga  grower, 
j  with  his  raisin  floors,  must  turn  his  raisins  by  hand.  The  great  advan- 
tage of  our  trays  is  that  we  can  turn  much  quicker.  The  turning  is 
done  in  our  vineyards  by  placing  one  tray  on  the  top  of  another  and 
then  turning  them  quickly  over,  when  in  changing  the  tray  the  bottom 
side  of  the  bunches  will  be  found  to  be  up. 


Raisin  Tray  Catcher. 

This  turning,  however,  requires  some  little  knack,  so  as  not  to  drop 
any  raisins  on  the  ground.  The  trays  may  be  turned  either  the  short 
or  the  long  way.  If  the  long  way,  one  tray  is  first  placed  on  the  top 
of  the  other,  and  two  men  catch  hold  of  the  long  opposite  sides  of 
the  trays  by  placing  their  hands  on  the  outside  quarters  of  the  edge 
and  then  pressing  firmly.  This  keeps  the  raisins  steady  between  the 
trays,  and  in  turning  rapidly,  if  the  bunches  are  at  all  entire,  few  or 
no  raisins  will  be  dropped.  In  turning  the  short  way,  the  men  grasp 
with  their  opposite  hands  at  the  middle  of  the  short  sides,  while  with 
their  other  hands  they  catch  the  outside  quarters  of  one  of  the  long 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  141 

sides.  By  turning  quickly  over  the  long  side  that  is  held  by  the 
hands  of  the  turners,  the  operation  may  be  performed  without  drop- 
ping any  berries.  In  small  vineyards,  where  the  owner  must  perform  ^ 
the  work  alone,  he  may  turn  the  trays  without  any  help  whatever, 
though,  naturally,  his  work  will  be  somewhat  slower.  He  can 
operate  by  the  aid  of  a  small  contrivance  called  the  catcher,  a  most 
simple  but  very  effective  little  tool.  It  resembles  a  miniature  stool  like 
those  used  by  the  milkers  of  cows.  The  seat  or  top  may  be  twelve 
inches  long  by  six  wide,  made  from  one-inch  lumber.  On  one  side 
are  inserted  four  pegs,  each  about  six  inches  long.  The  two  oppo- 
site ones  are  inserted  very  close  together,  but  spread  strongly  out- 
ward. After  one  tray  has  been  placed  on  the  top  of  the  other,  the 
catcher  is  pushed  over  the  long  edge  of  the  trays,  which  of  course 
will  cause  them  to  jam  tightly  together  on  that  side.  By  now  grasp- 
ing the  trays  on  the  opposite  edge,  they  may  be  turned  without  the 
aid  of  any  one  else,  and  without  any  loss  of  raisins.  Some  use  steel 
clips  for  the  same  purpose,  but  the  common  home-made  wooden  catch 
is  undoubtedly  the  most  practical  method,  as  it  is  the  cheapest. 

Turning  should,  as  much  as  possible,  be  done  in  the  morning  or  at 
least  in  the  forenoon  while  the  air  is  yet  cool  and  the  stems  of  the  raisins 
damp.  The  pressure  of  the  tray  will  not  then  cause  the  stems  to  break 
off  and  the  quality  of  the  raisins  to  be  lowered.  If  the  bunch  raisins 
are  on  separate  trays,  which  is  best,  they  may  be  turned  earlie  3  in  the 
day  than  the  second  grade,  which  is  not  apt  to  be  greatly  damaged  by 
the  breaking  of  the  stems,  as  they  are  to  be  stemmed  anyhow. 

Reversing. — This  is  an  operation  not  properly  understood  by  every 
raisin-grower,  but  is  still  of  the  utmost  importance,  especially  for  the 
first-class  bunches  of  the  first  crop,  which  naturally  dry  more  slowly 
than  the  smaller  bunches.  But  the  method  is  also  very  useful  for  the 
second  crop,  when  late  in  the  season  the  drying  is  slow  and  uncertain. 
The  reversing  consists  simply  in  reversing  the  trays  on  the  ground  in 
such  a  way  that  the  edges  which  first  faced  the  north  afterwards  face 
the  south,  or  vice  versa.  The  object  of  reversing  is  plain.  It  will 
nearly  always  be  found  that  the  raisins  at  the  top  or  on  the  side  of 
the  tray  nearest  the  north  will  dry  much  more  slowly  than  those  on 
the  side  facing  the  south,  especially  so  as  soon  as  the  weather  begins 
to  turn  colder.  To  prevent  this  and  insure  equal  drying  at  the  top 
and  bottom,  the  reversing  is  performed  after  the  trays  have  first  been 
turned.  This  will  enable  the  grower  to  get  his  raisins  in  several  days 
sooner  than  he  otherwise  would.  Indeed,  at  the  critical  period  of 
drying,  when  fall  rains  may  set  in  and  injure  the  raisins,  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  hurry  the  crop  as  much  as  possible;  the  reversing 
is  at  this  time  almost  as  important  as  turning.  I  have  seen  the  second 
crop  of  many  a  vineyard  seriously  injured  by  rain,  and  its  drying 
delayed  only  through  neglect  to  reverse  the  trays.  The  effect  of 
reversing  is  oftentimes  very  striking,  and  one  grower  who  reverses  his 
trays  in  time  may  get  his  crop  in  safely,  while  his  neighbor  who 
neglects  reversing  may  lose  a  great  part  of  his.  A  few  days'  delay 
at  this  time  of  the  year  is  often  fatal  to  the  whole  second  crop,  and 
no  pains  should  be  spared  in  order  to  hasten  the  drying  by  every  pos- 
sible means  available. 


142  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

Slanting  the  Trays. — The  practice  of  raising  one  end  of  the  tray 
higher  than  the  other  is  of  very  questionable  value.  In  the  fore  part 
of  the  drying  season,  the  heat  from  the  sun  is  such  that  the  raisins 
receive  all  the  heat  they  require  without  being  raised  at  an  angle 
against  the  sun.  Towards  the  end  of  the  season,  I  have  found  that, 
when  the  trays  have  been  raised,  those  grapes  which  lie  on  the  lower 
edge  of  the  tray,  and  accordingly  nearest  to  the  ground,  dry  the 
quickest,  while  those  at  the  upper  edge  dry  considerably  slower.  The 
cause  is  that  the  air  a  foot  above  the  ground  is  much  cooler  than  close 
to  the  ground;  the  large  space  under  the  raised  tray  also  serves  as  a 
cooling  room  to  cool  the  tray.  In  some  direct  experiments  made,  it 
was  found  that,  as  regards  the  tail  end  of  the  first  crop,  the  raised 
trays  came  in  several  days  later  than  the  trays  which  had  remained 
flat  on  the  ground.  In  advocating  that  the  trays  should  not  be  tilted, 
V  I  must  not  be  understood  to  mean  that  it  is  not  beneficial  to  keep  the 
tray  in  a  tilted  position  when  there  is  a  close  background  to  sufficiently 
heat  the  air  equally  at  the  upper  and  lower  end  of  the  trays.  This 
can  only  be  secured  by  either  placing  the  trays  against  the  side  of  a 
hill  or  on  specially  prepared  drying  floors,  which  are  described  further 
on.  In  this  connection  I  may  suggest  that  when  the  heat  of  the  sun 
is  not  great,  and  when  the  raisins  dry  slowly,  the  placing  of  an  empty 
tray  behind  the  drying  tray,  in  order  to  reflect  the  sun  on  the  raisins, 
will  considerably  hasten  their  drying.  This  is  a  valuable  aid  in  drying, 
especially  when  the  second  crop  is  late. 

Elevating  the  Trays. — The  practice  of  elevating  the  trays  containing 
the  tail  end  of  the  second  crop  is  a  good  one.  The  best  way  is  to 
place  the  trays  on  the  top  of  the  vines,  when  it  will  be  found  that  the 
free  circulation  of  air  underneath  will  help  to  dry  the  raisins  and  pre- 
vent rot  and  mold.  This  method  is  only  adopted  after  fall  rains,  but 
is  then  of  great  help  in  drying  the  crop. 

Stacking  Against  Rain  and  Dew. — The  stacking  of  the  trays  is  also 
a  valuable  help  in  keeping  out  dew  and  cold.  Late  in  the  season, 
-  when  it  takes  several  hours  of  sunlight  to  dry  the  night  dews,  the 
stacked  trays  will  be  dry  when  the  first  rays  of  the  sun  are  out.  When 
heavy  rains  are  expected,  the  grapes,  whether  partially  dried  or  not, 
should  always  be  stacked.  It  will  keep  the  stems  from  rotting  off 
from  the  berries,  and  will  generally  save  the  crop  from  being  seriously 
injured.  Some  growers  have  an  idea  that  only  the  partially  dried 
grapes  should  be  stacked,  but  the  green  ones  are  equally  benefited. 

There  are  several  ways  of  stacking.  The  flat-stacking  is  used  prin- 
V  cipally  when  the  raisins  are  very  dry,  and  when  it  is  of  importance 
that  no  air  should  enter  the  trays.  In  flat-stacking,  one  tray  is  simply 
placed  on  the  top  of  the  other,  and  the  circulation  of  air  thus  brought 
to  a  minimum.  In  rainy  weather,  however,  the  roof-stacking  is  to  be 
preferred.  Instead  of  placing  one  tray  on  the  top  of  another,  the 
trays  are  placed  in  two  piles  joining  each  other  in  such  a  way  that 
7  the  inner  end  of  every  tray  overlaps  the  edge  of  the  tray  in  the  adjoin- 
ing pile.  This  lifting  up  of  one  edge  of  the  tray  gives  to  the  whole 
pile  a  roof-like  appearance,  and  the  angle  in  which  the  trays  join 
together  becomes  steeper  the  higher  the  pile  grows,  until,  at  the  height 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  143 

of  three  or  four  feet,  the  trays  slant  so  much  that  the  raisins  cannot 
rest  on  them,  but  are  in  danger  of  sliding  off,  when,  of  course,  the  pile 
should  not  be  made  any  higher.  It  takes  several  times  longer  to  stack 
the  trays  in  roof  fashion  than  to  simply  pile  them  up  flat.  The 
advantage  of  roof-stacking  is  that  it  admits  more  air,  and  sheds  the 
rain  better.  In  damp  weather  the  piles  should  not  be  covered  on  the 
sides  for  any  length  of  time,  as  the  raisins  will  then  mold  more  rapidly. 
If,  instead  of  joining  two  piles  of  trays,  three  piles  are  made  to  join, 
the  center  stack  will  be  flat,  while  much  air  is  admitted  to  the  raisins. 
In  this  stacking  the  first  two  trays  are  placed  flat  on  the  ground  at  almost 
the  distance  of  one  tray.  Another  tray  is  made  to  rest  on  the  inner 
edge  of  the  lower  trays  and  cover  the  intermediate  space,  and  so  on. 
This  method  gives  twice  as  much  air  space  between  the  trays  as  regu- 
lar flat-stacking,  and  is  to  be  recommended  when  the  weather  is  damp. 
A  combination  of  this  last  method  and  roof-stacking  is  used  by  some, 
every  grower  almost  having  his  favorite  way  to  stack.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  in  very  rainy  weather  no  kind  of  stacking  will  be  of  any 
value,  while,  when  the  showers  are  few  and  far  between,  stacking  may 
save  the  crop. 

Stacking  is  especially  valuable  in  conjunction  with  dryers,  when 
protection  during  a  few  days  only  is  all  that  is  needed.  One  man  can 
stack  about  five  hundred  trays  an  hour,  and  the  regular  picking  gang 
can  stack  a  whole  vineyard  in  a  few  hours.  Should  the  rain  be  very 
heavy  and  no  dryer  handy,  it  is  of  no  use  to  try  to  save  the  crop  after 
the  mold  has  begun  to  make  its  appearance,  and  when  the  berries  have 
begun  to  rot.  It  is  then  far  better  to  dump  the  whole  crop  in  the  field 
rather  than  to  spend  time,  money  and  anxiety  on  raisins  which  must 
in  any  case  become  a  total  loss. 

Taking  Up. — When,  at  last,  the  raisins  are  sufficiently  dried,  they 
must  be  taken  up  as  quickly  as  possible.  This  process  again  consists 
of  three  different  labors, — the  stacking,  assorting  and  boxing.  It  is  of 
great  importance  to  know  exactly  when  the  raisins  have  sufficiently 
dried  to  be  ready  for  the  sweatboxes.  This  can  properly  only  be 
ascertained  by  experience,  still  a  few  directions  will  materially  help 
the  inexperienced  grower  in  his  judgment.  A  perfect  raisin  should  be 
neither  too  hard  nor  too  soft.  A  raisin  is  too  soft  when,  after  rolling 
it  between  the  fingers,  the  least  particle  of  juice  exudes  through  the 
cracked  skin  or  meat.  Such  raisins  will  " sugar"  in  course  of  time, 
and  not  keep  a  year.  If  the  raisins,  or  a  majority  of  them,  on  a  bunch 
are  too  wet,  they  should  be  spread  to  the  sun  for  some  time  longer.  If, 
however,  there  are  only  a  few  underdried  raisins  in  a  bunch,  the  bunch 
may  be  taken  in,  and  the  soft  raisins  clipped  off  afterwards.  A  raisin 
is  too  dry  when,  in  pressing  and  rolling  it  between  two  fingers,  the  pulp 
does  not  move  readily  inside  the  skin.  Such  overdried  raisins  will  not 
again  become  first-class  raisins  ;  their  skin  will  always  be  tough,  and 
their  color  will  be  somewhat  inferior.  If  but  slightly  overdried,  they 
may  be  brought  out  by  equalizing.  To  know  when  the  raisins  are  in 
a  proper  condition  to  take  up  is  most  important  to  every  raisin-man, 
and  he  should  never  neglect  to  watch  his  trays  early  and  late.  Upon 
hisTgood  judgment  and  watchfulness  depend  the  quality  of  his  crop. 


144  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

To  prevent  too  rapid  drying  out  after  the  raisins  are  nearly  ready,  the 
practice  now  is  to  stack  the  trays  in  the  field. 

This  stacking  simply  consists  in  placing  the  trays  which  contain  the 

ready  raisins  on  top  of  each  other,  in  piles  five  feet  high.     On  the  top 

x  of  every  such  pile  are  placed  several  loose  trays  crosswise,  so  as  to 

7  shelter  the  pile  from  the  sun,  and  possibly  even  from  rain,  and  other 
trays  are  raised  up  against  the  sides  of  the  pile  in  order  to  exclude  as 
much  air  as  possible.  If,  however,  the  raisins  are  rather  underdried, 
the  side  trays  may  be  left  out  so  as  to  allow  the  raisins  to  dry  more. 
It  is  always  best  to  stack  the  trays  before  the  raisins  are  fully  dried,  as 
they  will  finish  drying  and  curing  in  the  stack  much  better  than  in  the 
sun.  The  underdried  raisins  will  thus  dry  just  enough,  while  the 
overdried  ones,  or  those  just  right,  will  not  dry  much  more. 

After  the  stacking  is  done,  the  assorting  is  in  order.     This  consists 

\/  in  taking  out  every  bunch  that  is  not  sufficiently  dried  to  go  into  the 
sweatbox,  and  placing  them  on  new  trays  to  dry  more.  At  this  time, 
also,  the  bad  or  inferior  and  red  berries  may  be  taken  out,  if  present  in 
a  very  large  quantity  on  good  bunches  ;  but  when  there  are  only  a  few 
on,  it  is  better  not  to  touch  the  bunch,  as,  in  handling  it,  it  is 

^  only  too  apt  to  break.  Any  further  picking  out  of  bad  berries  had 
better  be  deferred  to  the  packing-house.  The  boxing  and  assorting, 
which  may  be  considered  together,  consist  in  transferring  the  dif- 
ferent grades  of  the  now  dried  raisins  to  separate  sweatboxes.  This 
is  done  in  two  ways.  The  number  one  bunches,  which  have  been 
placed  on  separate  trays,  may  now  simply  be  slid  into  the  sweat- 
box,  by  a  dexterous  movement  of  the  tray.  Between  every  two 
layers  of  these  first-class  bunches  should  be  placed  a  stout  manilla 
paper  cut  so  as  to  exactly  fit  the  box.  It  is  of  importance  to  have 
the  paper  just  fit  the  box,  and  not  be  too  large  nor  too  small,  as  in 
either  case  the  raisins  are  apt  to  become  mixed  and  the  bunches 
broken.  But,  if  the  grapes  have  not  been  assorted  from  the  beginning 
on  separate  trays,  more  work  will  be  required  to  get  them  into  the 
sweatboxes.  Every  bunch  must  be  carefully  taken  up  by  hand  from 
the  tray,  and  then  placed  on  the  paper  in  the  box.  But  in  doing  so 
many  bunches  are  necessarily  broken,  as  even  careful  hands  cannot 
help  frequent  mishaps,  while  ignorant  and  careless  workmen  may  do 
an  immense  injury  to  the  crop.  Too  few  manilla  papers  are  generally 
used.  Some  packers  require  only  two  papers  in  every  box,  while  six 
or  eight,  or  at  least  five,  papers  should  be  the  proper  number  for  every 
box  of  very  choice  or  even  ordinary  layers.  We  must  remember  that, 
the  more  papers  we  use,  the  less  apt  are  the  bunches  to  be  injured,  but 
even  the  best  layer  bunches  will  not  suffer  if  placed  two  layers  high 
between  every  paper.  On  top  and  in  the  bottom  of  every  box  must  be 
one  paper,  so  as  ta  keep  out  dust.  The  loose  and  inferior  raisins, 
which  either  have  been  left  on  the  tray  after  the  layers  are  picked 
out,  or  which  from  the  beginning  have  been  placed  on  separate  trays, 
may  now,  when  perfectly  dry,  be  simply  dumped  in  sweatboxes 
without  any  paper. 

We  have  thus  at  least  two  kinds  of  sweatboxes.     One  kind  contains 
those  raisins  which  are  destined  to  make  layers,  and  which  require 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  145 

sweating  and  equalizing  before  they  can  be  packed.  The  other  kind 
contains  the  loose  and  drier  berries,  which  are  to  go  immediately  to 
the  stemmer  and  grader,  and  which  would  not  separate  from  the  stems 
if  they  were  made  to  equalize. 

Covering. — If  the  weather  has  been  favorable,  the  raisins  may  have 
been  dried  and  cured  in  twelve  days.  Of  these  twelve  days,  the  first 
seven  or  eight  were  used  for  drying  the  upper  side  of  the  raisins.  On 
the  seventh  or  eighth  day  they  were  turned,  and  on  the  twelfth  day 
they  were  ready  to  put  in  the  sweatboxes.  But  this  is  fast  drying, 
and  drying  under  favorable  circumstances,  with  a  dry  wind  blowing 
gently  all  the  time.  But  sometimes  it  takes  a  much  longer  time  to  dry, 
say  from  fourteen  to  twenty-one  days.  In  Fresno,  where  the  weather 
is  less  favorable,  the  drying  of  the  first  crop  may  require  from  two  to 
three  weeks.  In  HI  Cajon  it  always  takes  two  or  three  weeks  for  the 
raisins  to  dry,  and  in  Orange  county  the  drying  sometimes  requires 
from  thirty  days  to  five  weeks.  In  Malaga  the  drying  is  accomplished 
quicker  than  in  California,  because  there  they  cover  the  raisin  floors 
every  night  with  canvas,  and  in  the  morning,  when  the  canvas  is  un- 
rolled, the  raisins  are  yet  warm.  The  drying,  then,  has  been  contin- 
ued all  night,  and  the  raisins  have  not  had  time  to  cool  when  they 
meet  the  first  rays  of  the  sun.  In  California,  again,  our  raisins  are  , 
cold,  possibly  even  wet  with  dew  or  rain,  and  it  sometimes  takes  the 
sun  until  noon  to  dry  up  the  moisture  accumulated  through  the  night. 

To  counteract  this  absorption  of  moisture,  many  of  the  raisin-grow- 
ers in  Orange  county,  California,  especially  around  Santa  Ana  and  \/ 
McPherson,  cover  the  trays  with  canvas  every  night.  This  method  is 
to  be  recommended  wherever  there  is  any  difficulty  in  curing  either 
the  first  or  the  second  crop.  If  this  method  is  employed,  I  am  satis- 
fied that  raisins  could  be  grown  and  properly  cured  in  localities  where 
otherwise  no  raisin  cult  is  possible.  The  method  of  covering  the  rai- 
sin trays  at  Santa  Ana  is  as  follows,  varied  by  different  growers,  but 
in  the  main  the  same  everywhere.  The  trays  are  placed  together  in 
lonrj  rows  ;  about  twenty  yards  long  is  found  to  be  most  convenient. 
The  width  of  the  row  is  just  the  width  of  two  trays,  or  five  feet.  Thus 
the  row  of  trays  laden  with  raisin  grapes  is  about  sixty  feet  long  by 
five  feet  wide.  Along  the  north  end  of  this  long  row  of  trays  are 
driven  down  small  posts  every  six  or  ten  feet,  and  left  extending  about 
two  feet  above  the  ground.  Along  the  south  side  of  the  row  of  trays 
smaller  posts  are  driven  down  at  the  same  distances,  but  not  allowed  to 
extend  so  high  above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  These  pegs  or  small 
posts  may  best  be  slanting  outward,  or  from  the  trays.  Along  the  high 
posts  is  strung  a  wire  in  such  a  way  that  it  cannot  easily  get  loose. 
To  a  long  canvas  cover  are  now  secured  small  rings  for  running  on  the 
wire,  and  on  the  other  side  larger  rings  to  hook  over  the  smaller  posts 
in  front.  If  the  canvas  is  only  one  yard  wide,  two  widths  must  be 
sewed  together  so  as  to  make  the  canvas  six  feet  wide.  The  trays, 
which  are  two  and  one-half  feet  by  three  feet,  when  placed  side  by 
side  will  just  form  a  drying  floor  of  five  feet,  large  enough  to  be  cov- 
ered by  the  canvas  six  feet  wide.  The  cost  of  canvas  is  six  and  one- 
half  cents  a  yard  by  the  bale. 


146  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

The  manner  of  using  the  canvas  is  very  simple.  The  canvas  cover, 
which  is  stationary,  is  attached  to  the  wire  and  the  higher  posts. 
Every  evening  the  cover  is  thrown  over  the  trays,  the  front  or  lower 
edge  is  hooked  by  the  aid  of  the  rings  over  the  pegs  in  the  ground, 
and  the  trays  thus  securely  sheltered.  In  the  morning,  when  the  sun 
is  up,  the  cover  is  thrown  back  over  the  higher  posts,  and  the  trays 
fully  exposed.  The  trouble  to  cover  is  not  very  great ;  two  men  can 
cover  forty  tons  of  grapes  in  half  an  hour,  and  generally  it  is  consid- 
ered that  the  picking-gang  can  cover  the  whole  crop  in  half  an  hour's 
time  every  evening,  and  it  takes  them  as  long  to  uncover  in  the  morn- 
ing. If  well  cared  for  and  properly  dried,  and  stored  away  in  the 
autumn  after  the  crop  is  all  in,  this  canvas  cover,  with  its  posts,  will 
last  six  or  seven  years,  and  if  painted  or  oiled  would  probably  last  still 
longer.  One  yard  of  canvas  can  cover  thirty  pounds  of  grapes,  and  for 
the  purpose  of  utilizing  the  full  space,  the  trays  are  made  two  and  one- 
half  by  three  feet. 

Such  is  the  process  practiced  in  Orange  county.  If  adopted  else- 
where, it  would  enable  many  localities  to  produce  good  raisins,  where 
the  climatic  conditions  are  such  that  no  drying  is  now  practicable. 
The  process  is  not  as  good  as  the  one  employed  in  Malaga,  but  it  has 
some  advantages  which  make  it  very  acceptable.  It  enables  the 
grower  to  use  trays,  and  it  makes  drying-floors  unnecessary,  and  the 
spaces  in  the  vineyard  can  be  used  without  taking  away  room  from 
the  vines.  On  the  other  hand,  the  drying-floors  of  Malaga  are  warmer 
and  more  secure,  and  almost  absolutely  safe  in  case  of  rain. 

Drying-floors. — While,  in  some  parts  of  California,  the  first  crop 
dries  generally  without  any  difficulty,  in  other  parts  rain  and  dew  very 
frequently  interfere  with  the  drying  of  even  the  first  crop.  In  many 
places  where  raisin-curing  is  not  successful,  the  same  could  be  prac- 
ticed profitably  if  we  would  adopt  the  system  of  drying-floors  used  in 
Spain.  Even  in  localities  where  the  first-crop  raisins  dry  well,  the  sec- 
ond crop  is  always  exposed  to  more  or  less  rain,  and  the  raisin-grower 
annually  loses  large  sums  of  money  on  account  of  not  being  able  to 
hasten  the  drying  of  the  second  crop.  But  it  is  doubtful  if  the  Malaga 
drying-floors  will  ever  be  found  practical  and  come  into  general  use 
with  us.  They  take  considerable  space  from  the  vineyard,  and  are 
very  expensive,  but  they  are  very  secure,  and  when  once  built  are  very 
profitable.  A  limited  number  of  such  floors  would  be  very  useful  jn 
every  vineyard,  especially  for  drying  the  second  crop.  At  present  no 
such  floors  exist  in  this  State.  The  following  description  gives  an 
idea  of  how  they  may  be  constructed: 

These  drying-floors  may  be  built  of  brick  with  the  long  sides  as  long 
as  required,  while  the  short  sides  should  be  about  twelve  feet  long. 
The  back  wall  is  six  feet  high,  while  the  front  wall  is  only  six  inches 
high,  which,  with  the  above  length  of  side  wall,  would  give  enough 
slope.  In  Malaga  the  interior  is  filled  with  black  gravel  and  tamped 
hard,  but  for  our  purpose  probably  nothing  would  be  superior  to  as- 
phaltum,  bituminous  rock  or  cement.  It  must  first  be  ascertained  if 
bituminous  rock  would  not  impart  a  flavor  to  the  grapes,  in  which  case 
cement  would  be  the  most  useful  flooring.  In  order  to  allow  the  rain 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  147 

to  run  off,  the  front  wall  should  be  pierced  with  small  holes  close  to  the 
ground,  but  this  would  only  be  necessary  in  case  the  bed  is  filled  with 
gravel,  or  no  cement  floor  exists  on  top  of  it.  Along  the  back  part  of 
the  floor  should  be  set  a  row  of  uprights  of  two  by  four  lumber,  driven 
securely  in  the  ground.  On  the  top  of  each  post  is  set  an  eyelet, 
through  which  runs  a  stout  wire  along  the  whole  back  of  the  frame. 
A  canvas  cover  long  enough  to  reach  the  whole  length  of  the  floor 
should  be  used  for  covering,  and,  in  order  to  secure  it  to  the  wire  and 
the  posts,  it  should  be  hemmed  and  furnished  with  small  rings  to  run 
on  the  wire.  In  front  similar  rings  are  set  in  order  that  the  canvas 
may  be  secured  to  the  smaller  posts  and  kept  down  in  case  of  wind. 
On  such  floors  common  trays  may  be  used.  To  make  the  canvas  im- 
pervious to  rain,  it  may  be  painted  with  boiled  linseed  oil.  The  abyve 
are  only  suggestions  based  on  the  Spanish  drying-floors.  For  a  full 
description  of  them,  I  beg  to  refer  to  the  article  on  Malaga.  In  using 
linseed  oil,  care  should  be  taken  that  only  pure  oil  is  used.  There  is 
linseed  oil  which  contains  chemicals  which  rapidly  rot  the  canvas. 

Dryers. — The  subject  of  dryers  is  of  great  importance  to  the  Califor- 
nia grower.  The  last  few  years  have  fully  demonstrated  that  every 
raisin  vineyard,  no  matter  where  it  is  situated,  should  have  one  or  ,/ 
more  dryers,  in  order  that  the  last  of  the  crop  may  be  dried  properly 
when  the  rain  sets  in.  Many  years  these  dryers  are  not  required,  but 
from  time  to  time  they  prove  of  vast  value,  and  if  properly  constructed 
are  much  superior  to  any  drying-floor.  But  so  far  no  perfect  dryer 
has  ever  been  constructed.  Most  dryers  are  too  expensive,  costing 
from  three  thousand  to  seven  thousand  dollars,  when  of  a  capacity  to 
dry  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  tons  of  green  grapes  at  one  charge. 
Nearly  all  late  dryers  are  constructed  with  a  fan,  which  sucks  the  air 
out  through  one  end  of  the  building.  The  large  complicated  dryers 
are  all  patented,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  good  small  dryers 
might  be  constructed  by  every  grower,  which  will  do  good  service. 
As,  however,  so  far  no  very  perfect  dryers  have  ever  been  constructed, 
and  as  every  owner  of  one  changes  and  rebuilds  every  year,  we  must 
leave  the  consideration  of  the  construction  of  these  dryers  to  some  fu- 
ture time  when  more  knowledge  or  experience  will  have  been  gained. 
Dryers  large  enough  to  hold  a  charge  of  one  ton  of  green  fruit  have  been 
constructed  at  the  price  of  two  hundred  dollars  by  Ellwood  Cooper  of 
Santa  Barbara.  They  dried  their  fruit  in  twenty-four  hours,  but  they 
were  never  used  for  raisins. 

But  as  this  style  of  dryer  may  be  adapted  to  raisins,  I  will  give  a  few 
hints  at  its  construction.  The  heating  apparatus  consists  of  a  large 
iron  drum,  or  radiator,  seventeen  and  one-half  feet  long  by  two  and 
one-half  feet  wide,  set  on  a  furnace  in  which  is  burned  wood.  The 
furnace  and  radiator  are  built  into  a  bank,  on  top  of  which  the  dryer  is 
built.  This  dryer  is  simply  a  large  wooden  box  about  seventeen  feet 
square  and  six  feet  high,  and  looks,  as  seen  from  the  outside,  like  a 
chest  full  of  drawers.  These  slide  on  frames,  are  deeper  than  they  are 
broad,  and  contain  movable  bottoms  or  trays  made  of  small  redwood 
ribs.  They  begin  about  two  feet  from  the  top  of  the  radiator ;  if  closer, 
the  heat  would  be  too  strong  for  the  fruit.  The  ventilation  is  had  by 


148  THE;  RAISIN   INDUSTRY. 

small  sliding  doors  at  the  bottom  of  the  chest,  through  which  the  air 
rushes  in,  while  it  goes  out  through  the  drawers,  which  for  this  pur- 
pose are  left  open  an  inch  or  two.  The  chest  is  covered  over  with  an 
open  shed,  which  makes  the  labor  pleasant,  and  enables  the  attendant 
to  inspect  any  drawer  at  any  time  without  seriously  disturbing  the 
heat  of  the  dryer.  The  cheapness  and  effectiveness  of  such  small  dry- 
ers are  such  that  every  one  can  afford  them.  A  dozen  such  small  dry- 
ers all  set  in  a  row  in  a  bank  could  be  attended  to  by  very  few  hands. 
They  would  also  be  preferable  to  very  large  dryers  on  account  of  the 
short  time  required  to  fill  them,  and  their  raisins  can  be  dried  long  be- 
fore a  larger  dryer  has  been  filled. 

As  to  the  usefulness  of  steam  or  fire  dryers  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
The  idea  is  not  to  entirely  dry  the  raisins  in  them,  but  only  to  finish 
up  the  raisins  when,  on  account  of  unfavorable  climatic  conditions, 
they  do  not  dry  any  more  out-of-doors.  The  question  as  to  which  are 
best,  "machine-dried"  raisins  or  those  dried  in  the  sun,  is  entirely 
unimportant.  No  one  would  think  of  drying  raisins  entirely  in  the 
dryer,  as  it  would  not  pay.  Raisins  properly  finished  in  the  dryer  are 
not  inferior  to  those  entirely  sun-dried. 

Sweatboxes. — The  sweatboxes  should  be  made  of  strong  lumber 
one  inch  thick.  The  length  and  width  should  be  according  to  the 
size  of  the  tray,  and  always  one  inch  larger  every  way  than  the  tray, 
in  order  that  the  raisins  may  be  let  down  readily,  or  that  they  may 
receive  a  tray.  The  height  of  a  sweatbox  should  be  from  six  to  eight 
inches,  no  more,  as  a  greater  depth  will  make  them  too  heavy  to  be 
handled  with  ease  by  two  men.  Six  inches  in  depth  is  better  than 
eight.  In  order  to  secure  the  box  and  prevent  it  from  splitting,  the 
sides  should  be  bound  with  hide,  iron  bands  or  with  twisted  galvan- 
ized wire.  The  latter  is  the  strongest  and  best,  costs  the  least,  and  is 
the  easiest  to  put  on. 

Trays  for  Drying. — The  tray  consists  of  a  wooden  frame  made  of 
well-dried  half-inch  lumber,  nailed  to  cleats  of  one  inch  by  one  and 
one-half  inch  and  of  desired  length.  The  lumber  most  commonly 
used  is  well-seasoned  spruce.  Pine,  if  not  well  seasoned,  is  apt  to 
give  the  raisins  a  taste  of  the  wood  or  of  rosin,  while  redwood  may 
discolor  the  raisins  if  exposed  to  rain  or  very  heavy  dew.  But  as 
the  lumber  attains  age,  it  also  becomes  less  injurious  to  the  grapes. 
Cottonwood  or  poplar-wood,  which  can  be  obtained  in  some  places, 
make  most  useful  lumber  for  trays,  as  they  do  not  contain  any 
taste  or  other  substance  apt  to  injure  the  raisins.  The  size  of  the 
tray  varies  according  to  the  idea  of  the  raisin-grower,  but  the  size  gen- 
erally adopted  is  two  by  three  feet.  Formerly  a  smaller  tray  was 
used,  but  no  smaller  ones  are  now  made.  A  larger  size,  three  by  three 
feet,  is  used  by  several  growers,  but,  while  it  has  the  advantage  of 
holding  more  grapes,  it  is  also  less  readily  handled  than  the  smaller 
tray.  In  the  southern  part  of  California,  a  tray  two  and  one-half  by 
three  feet  is  very  popular.  The  tops  of  the  trays  are  bought  in  the 
shape  of  shingles,  which  should  be  well  dried  before  being  nailed,  as 
they  will  otherwise  shrink  up  and  cause  cracks  to  form  in  the  tray, 
greatly  to  the  detriment  of  the  drying  of  the  raisins.  Loss  is  also 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  149 

caused  by  loose  raisins  dropping  through  such  cracks.  The  cleats 
should  be  wet  or  green,  or  they  will  split  in  nailing.  If  too  dry,  they 
should  be  soaked  in  water  over  night  or  for  a  few  hours.  The  shingles 
should  be  planed  on  the  side  which  is  to  be  placed  upwards.  The 
cost  of  the  lumber  for  the  trays  varies  from  nine  to  twelve  and  one- 
half  cents  in  the  shocks.  For  nailing  the  trays  together,  a  frame  is 
made  of  wood  and  iron.  The  cleats  are  placed  on  the  two  short,  oppo- 
site sides,  with  a  heavy  bar  of  iron  immediately  underneath  so  as  to 
clinch  the  nails.  The  planed  shingles  are  then  placed  on  top  and 
nailed  to  the  cleats  with  round-wire  nails,  which  clinch  automatically 
on  the  lower  side  as  soon  as  they  strike  the  iron  bar.  No  cleats  are 
required  on  the  long  side  of  small  size  trays,  but  if  a  larger  tray  is 
used  a  bar  on  each  side  may  be  required  to  give  the  tray  sufficient 
strength.  A  good  workman,  after  a  few  days  of  practice,  can  com- 
fortably nail  up  four  hundred  trays  a  day.  When  the  season  is  over, 
every  tray  should  be  nailed  up  and  washed,  or  at  least  swept  clean  and 
stored  dry.  The  age  of  a  tray,  if  cared  for,  is  about  ten  years. 

CALIFORNIA  LYE-DIPPED   RAISINS. 

General  Notes. — In  California  the  dipping  of  raisins  in  solutions  of 
lye  is  yet  in  its  very  infancy,  and  I  do  not  think  that  in  the  whole 
State  over  ten  tons  of  lye-dipped  raisins  have  been  placed  on  the  mar- 
ket yearly.  But  undoubtedly  this  process  is  destined  to  become  of 
considerable  importance,  especially  in  localities  where  the  drying  of 
the  first  crop  is  accomplished  with  difficulty  in  the  open  air.  The  first 
and  also  most  important  condition  in  producing  superior  dipped  raisins 
is  that  the  grapes  should  be  absolutely  ripe.  Unripe  grapes  will  not 
produce  any  good  raisins  when  dipped,  but  will  turn  reddish  and 
otherwise  become  inferior. 

Dipping  Process. — A  good  location  for  dipping  raisins  is  by  the 
side  of  an  irrigation  ditch,  provided  the  water  in  the  latter  can  be  de- 
pended upon  to  flow  constantly  while  the  operation  of  dipping  lasts. 
If  not,  the  water  must  be  procured  by  pumping  or  by  means  of  pipes 
from  reservoirs  or  water- works.  Flowing  water  is  of  great  importance 
in  producing  good  dipped  raisins,  and  is  required  for  the  perfect  wash- 
ing of  the  grapes.  For  this  purpose,  if  no  ditch  is  available,  a  large 
trough  may  be  used  to  advantage,  and  so  arranged  that  the  water  in 
it  can  be  kept  changing  through  a  continuous  flow.  The  following  is 
a  cheap  and  efficient  arrangement  for  dipping  in  actual  use  in  one  of 
the  largest  raisin  vineyards,  and  can  be  recommended  on  account  of 
its  cheapness  and  easy  working:  On  one  side  of  the  trough  is  a  sta- 
tionary iron  kettle  with  a  fireplace  underneath.  By  the  trough  is  also 
placed  an  upright  post,  about  five  feet  high,  and  on  this  balanced  a 
horizontal  beam  with  a  double  motion.  It  can  be  raised  and  lowered 
at  either  end,  or  swung  to  the  left  or  right  with  ease.  On  one  end  of 
the  beam  is  a  hook  on  which  to  hang  the  grape  bucket.  On  the  other 
side  of  the  trough  is  a  rough  assorting  table.  Two  or  more  buckets 
are  needed.  These  buckets  are  common  galvanized-iron  buckets,  per- 
forated thickly  with  holes,  the  latter  not  large  enough  to  let  any  loose 


150  THE     RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

grapes  through.  In  the  kettle  is  kept  constantly  boiling  a  solution  of 
water  and  potash.  Soda  is  not  suitable.  The  very  best  potash  should 
be  used  in  the  proportion  of  about  one  pound  to  twelve  gallons  of 
water.  The  ripe  grapes  are  now  brought  to  the  table  and  emptied 
in  the  buckets.  A  bucket  is  then  hung  on  the  beam,  the  latter  swung 
and  the  bucket  for  a  second  lowered  first  in  the  pure  water  and  then 
in  the  boiling  potash;  but  it  is  immediately  withdrawn  and  immersed 
in  the  water-trough.  When  rinsed  for  a  few  seconds,  the  grapes  are 
taken  out  and  spread  on  common  raisin  trays.  If  the  weather  is  warm, 
the  trays  are  stacked  one  on  top  of  the  other,  and  the  grapes  thus  pre- 
pared are  dried  in  the  shade. 

The  rinsing  of  the  fruit  before  drying  is  of  great  importance,  and 
by  far  not  sufficiently  understood.  In  Valencia  the  finest  raisins  are 
treated  that  way  and  thoroughly  rinsed  before  being  dipped  in  the  lye. 
But  nowhere  in  Spain  are  the  grapes  rinsed  in  water  afterwards,  and  it 
is  yet  an  undecided  question  if  this  rinsing  improves  or  injures  the 
raisins.  It  is  certain  that  the  washing  cleanses  the  berries,  as  the 
water  in  the  kettle  is  sometimes  dark  and  dirty;  but  if  it  is  an  advan- 
tage to  deprive  the  berries  of  the  lye  which  more  or  less  sticks  to  them 
is  very  doubtful.  It  is  well  known  here  that  lye-dipped  raisins  are  apt 
to  mold  if  the  rains  set  in  while  the  drying  lasts,  while  we  are  told 
that  in  Spain  the  dipped  raisins  do  not  spoil  even  if  subjected  to  several 
showers  of  rain.  From  this  it  will  seem  as  if  rinsing  after  dipping  is 
not  necessary  or  perhaps  even  injurious,  but  that,  on  the  contrary,  rinsing 
before  dipping  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  It  may  be  possible  that 
the  lye  which  adheres  to  the  grapes  will,  in  a  great  measure,  prevent 
them  from  molding. 

In  Spain  no  olive  oil  is  used  for  mixing  in  the  lye,  and  it  is  not 
likely  that  the  oil  process  will  come  in  vogue  in  California  until  it  is 
fully  demonstrated  that  it  not  only  greatly  improves  the  grapes,  but 
that  it  also  enables  the  grower  to  realize  a  correspondingly  better  price 
for  his  raisins.  Those  who  care  to  experiment  with  it  cannot  do  better 
than  to  follow  the  practice  as  it  is  used  in  Smyrna,  for  a  full  account 
of  which  we  beg  to  refer  to  the  article  under  that  heading.  We  might 
here  only  point  out  that  the  oil-dipped  raisins  of  Smyrna  bring  many 
times  the  price  of  the  lye-dipped  raisins  of  Valencia.  The  arrange- 
ment of  dipping,  kettles,  etc.,  may,  of  course,  be  greatly  varied. 
Steam  may  be  used  for  heating  the  lye  and  the  rinsing  water,  if  it  is 
desired  to  keep  the  latter  hot,  and  regular  trays  might  be  used  to  hold 
the  grapes,  instead  of  the  buckets  referred  to  above.  Every  grower 
will  no  doubt  vary  these  appliances  to  suit  his  own  fancy,  and  improve 
upon  the  methods  of  others.  As  an  example  of  the  devices  used  by 
another  grower,  we  here  reproduce  the  following  from  an  essay  on 
bleaching  raisin  grapes,  compiled  by  the  chief  viticultural  officer,  and 
especially  referring  to  the  system  used  by  Mr.  Byron  Jackson  :  "  Mr. 
Jackson  places  the  grapes  on  a  tray  made  with  a  frame  of  iron,  which 
is  covered  with  wire  gauze  with  a  quarter-inch  mesh.  The  frame  pro- 
jects upwards  on  the  sides  to  prevent  the  fruit  floating  off  while  in  the 
dip,  and  is  made  to  receive,  as  a  cover,  the  wooden  tray  on  which  the 
fruit  goes  to  the  dryer.  When  dipped  and  rinsed,  the  wooden  tray  is 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  151 

placed  over  the  dipping  tray,  and  two  men  transfer  the  fruit  by  turning 
over  the  two. ' ' 

The  length  of  time  required  for  dipping  can  only  be  ascertained  by 
experience,  and  must  differ  with  the  strength  of  the  lye,  with  the  heat 
of  the  solution,  and  with  the  thickness  of  the  skin  of  the  grapes. 
Thus  in  different  localities  the  strength  of  the  lye  and  the  length  of 
immersion  must  always  be  different,  and  may  even  differ  from  year  to 
year.  When  properly  dipped,  the  skin  of  the  grapes  must  show  some 
very  minute  cracks,  similar  to  cracks  in  glass  which  has  been  heated 
and  suddenly  immersed  in  or  sprinkled  with  ice-cold  water.  Deep 
cracks  are  not  desirable,  as  they  will  cause  the  juice  of  the  pulp  to  leak 
out,  after  which  the  raisins  will  sugar.  In  Valencia  the  grapes  used 
for  dipping  are  the  various  varieties  of  Muscats,  while  in  Smyrna  both 
Muscats  and  Sultanas  are  used.  Corinths  are  never  dipped,  as  they 
dry  readily  and  make  superior  raisins  without  this  process. 

Drying  and  Curing. — After  the  grapes  are  dipped,  they  must  be  im- 
mediately dried  either  in  the  sun,  or  in  sun  and  shade  alternately,  or 
entirely  in  the  shade.  According  to  the  circumstances  attending  the 
drying  of  the  grapes,  the  color  of  the  raisins  becomes  more  or  less  red 
or  yellow,  transparent  or  opaque.  The  most  perfect  amber  color  is 
attained  in  the  shade,  while  in  the  sun  the  color  rapidly  changes  to 
reddish,  a  less  desirable  color  in  dipped  raisins.  The  more  favorable 
is  the  weather  for  drying,  the  choicer  will  be  the  raisins,  and  the  better 
their  color.  If  the  sun  is  very  warm  and  the  chances  are  otherwise 
favorable  for  drying,  the  trays  should  be  exposed  to  the  sun  only  long 
enough  to  have  their  dip  thoroughly  evaporated,  and  for  this  purpose 
one  day  in  the  sun  may  suffice.  After  this  the  stacking  of  the  trays  is 
advisable,  and  only  occasionally  may  the  trays  be  spread  if  the  drying 
does  not  proceed  rapidly  enough.  Such  shade-dried  dipped  raisins 
will  assume  a  beautiful  amber-yellow  color,  and  bring  several  cents 
more  than  those  exposed  to  very  warm  sun.  If,  however,  the  weather 
is  not  very  warm,  the  grapes  must  be  dried  in  the  sun,  and  the  grower 
has  then  to  be  satisfied  with  the  color  that  nature  will  give  to  his  rai- 
sins. Dipped  raisins  do  not  necessarily  require  turning,  as  they  gen- 
erally dry  well  anyhow  in  from  four  to  six  days  in  fair  weather.  For 
this  class  of  raisins  dryers  are  very  useful  to  help  finish  the  drying. 
Such  dryers  must  be  almost  air-tight,  as  sandstorms  would  invariably 
spoil  the  raisins,  which,  on  account  of  their  stickiness,  are  almost 
impossible  to  afterwards  cleanse.  Dipped  raisins  should  always  be 
dried  on  their  trays,  and  on  special  drying  grounds,  which  should  be 
so  constructed  that  no  sand  can  blow  on  them,  or  at  least  so  arranged 
that  in  case  of  rain  the  sand  from  the  ground  will  not  be  splashed  over 
the  trays.  In  California  we  have  at  present  no  such  drying-floors,  but 
it  will  pay  any  one  who  intends  dipping  his  grapes  to  construct  them 
either  of  bricks,  bituminous  rock  or  lumber. 

Stemming,  Grading  and  Packing. — Dipped  raisins  should  be  stemmed 
when  well  dried,  and  then  graded  in  two  grades.  The  proper  recep- 
tacles for  them  are  either  sacks  lined  with  paper,  or  twenty-pound 
boxes,  in  which  they  may  be  packed  without  fancy  paper,  or  in  the 
same  way  as  prunes  or  other  dried  fruit.  So  far  no  uniform  method  of 
packing  such  raisins  has  been  adopted  in  this  State. 


152  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

As  to  the  usefulness  and  future  of  dipped  raisins,  not  much  can  be 
said  at  present.  Our  importations  of  Valencia  raisins,  which  are  mostly 
dipped,  are  considerable,  and  as  long  as  this  class  of  cooking  raisins  is 
in  demand,  there  is  no  good  reason  why  we  should  not  compete  and 
endeavor  to  supply  the  demand.  We  can  produce  them  as  well  as 
Spain  can,  and  the  only  reason  why  we  have  not  competed  with  Spain 
so  far  is  that  sun-dried  raisins  are  so  readily  produced  here,  that  it  has 
not  been  to  our  advantage  to  produce  anything  else.  There  are,  how- 
ever, many  places  in  our  State  which  will  grow  Muscatel  grapes  of 
good  quality,  but  with  too  thick  skins  to  make  them  proper  for  sun- 
dried  raisins.  For  all  such  localities  the  dipping  process  is  to  be  recom- 
mended, as  it  will  enable  the  growers  to  produce  marketable  raisins, 
and  to  profitably  supply  the  demand  for  this  variety  of  raisins  now 
imported  to  this  country  from  abroad.  In  localities  with  early  and 
copious  fall  rains,  the  dipping  process  will  enable  the  growers  to  finish 
quickly  before  the  rains  set  in.  California  dipped  second-crop  Musca- 
tels and  Sultanas  have  brought  as  high  as  seven  cents  per  pound 
wholesale. 


THE   PACKING-HOUSE. 

BUILDINGS   AND   MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES. 

The  Packing-house. — The  packing-house  should  be  large  and  airy 
and,  whether  it  is  made  of  lumber,  brick  or  adobe,  it  should  in 
preference  to  anything  else  be  large.  Room  is  needed  at  every 
operation  in  the  packing-house,  and  it  is  hardly  possible  to  get  too 
much  of  it.  So  far  no  very  large  and  perfect  buildings  for  packing- 
houses have  ever  been  erected  in  California ;  the  raisin  industry  is  too 
young  for  that,  and  even  the  best  of  our  buildings  are  only  temporary 
ones.  It  is  here  not  possible  nor  desirable  to  give  any  instructions 
how  to  build  and  arrange  a  raisin  packing- house,  as  every  packer  will 
have  his  own  ideas  and  his  own  necessities  in  this  respect,  and  not  two 
packers  would  build  alike.  All  we  can  do  here  is  to  refer  to  what  is 
needed  in  a  general  way,  in  order  that  the  reader  will  get  some 
preliminary  ideas  of  what  he  will  require  when  his  raisin  vineyard 
comes  in  bearing. 

The  packing-house  should  contain  the  following  apartments: 
First,  the  general  packing-room,  in  which  the  raisins  are  assorted  and 
packed.  Then  the  sweating-house  or  equalizing  room,  in  which  the 
boxes  are  stored  for  several  weeks  in  order  to  equalize  the  moisture  in 
the  raisins.  Then  the  stemming-room,  in  which  the  stemming  and 
grading  of  the  loose  raisins  is  carried  on.  Then  we  have  the  weighing 
room,  where  the  raisins  are  received  from  the  field,  and  where  they  are 
weighed  when  this  is  required.  There  should  also  be  an  office  and  a 
pasting  room,  where  the  labels  are  pasted  on  the  lining  paper,  and  finally 
there  should  be  plenty  of  veranda  or  shed  room  all  around  the  building, 
where  boxes  of  all  kinds  can  be  received  and  temporarily  stored,  either 
before  the  raisins  are  packed,  or  afterwards  when  they  are  ready  to  be 
shipped.  We  might  also  wish  to  have  a  room  for  a  box  factory,  where 
boxes  of  all  kinds  are  nailed  up.  This  can  in  our  climate  best  be  done  in 
the  shed  or  under  the  veranda.  The  packing-house  proper  should  be  as 
large  as  all  the  other  rooms  together.  It  can  hardly  be  made  too  large, 
as  during  the  lively  packing  season  hundreds  of  hands  will  here  be 
busy,  each  one  with  his  special  work.  The  floor  of  the  packing-house 
should  be  of  matched  lumber,  and  slanting  towards  the  center,  along 
which  should  run  a  small  gutter.  Any  other  material,  such  as  cement, 
may  also  be  used,  the  only  object  in  view  being  that  the  floor  can  be 
washed  from  time  to  time  and  the  dirt  carried  off  through  the  gutter  as 
readily  as  possible.  The  packing-room  should  have  places  for  long 
narrow  tables,  at  which  the  packing  and  assorting  is  done,  and  these 
tables  can  most  conveniently  be  run  the  whole  length  of  the  room. 
At  one  end  there  should  be  room  for  the  presses  and  the  nailing  tables, 
as  well  as  storage  room  for  empty  and  full  boxes. 

The  Sweating-house. — The  sweating-house  or  sweating-room  should 
immediately  adjoin  the  packing-room.  It  should  be  built  either  of 


154 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 


matched  lumber  or  of  brick  or  adobe,  in  order  that  the  temperature  may 
be  kept  tolerably  even  and  the  moisture  confined  if  necessary.  The 
sweating-room  in  the  Fresno  Raisin  and  Fruit  Packing  Go's  house  in 
Fresno  is  large  enough  to  contain  40  tons  of  raisins  at  one  time,  and  is 
about  50  feet  square,  while  the  sweating-room  on  the  Forsyth  vineyard 
measures  about  35  feet  by  50  feet,  and  is  built  of  brick  in  two  stories,  the 
lower  one  of  which  is  used  for  raisins,  the  upper  one  for  storage.  For 
those  who  wish  figures,  we  might  state  as  examples  of  buildings,  that 
the  Forsyth  packing-house,  which  also  contains  a  sweating-room  but 
not  a  stemming-room,  is  120  feet  by  35  feet,  and  contains  besides  a  small 
platform  outside  for  the  reception  of  boxes,  etc.  The  Fresno  Raisin 
and  Fruit  Packing  Go's  building  is  about  150  feet  by  75  feet. 


Raisin  Stemmer  and  Grader. 


The  Stemmer  and  Grader. — This  large  machine  is  a  California 
invention.  The  principle  on  which  it  works  is  that  the  dry  stems  are 
separated  by  revolving  the  raisins  rapidly  in  a  drum  made  of  perforated 
galvanized  iron  or  of  strong  galvanized  wire.  Arj—  *t"  ~" 


After  the   stems  are 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 


155 


separated,  the  raisins  fall  together  on  screens  of  wire  with  various  size 
<^~  meshes,  through  which  the  smaller  berries  are  separated  from  the  larger 
1  berries,  while  the  refuse  and  broken  stems  are  blown  away  by  a  fan. 
The  most  perfect  stemmer  and  grader  is  the  one  on  the  Butler  vine- 
yard. The  raisins  are  first  dumped  into  a  hopper  below  the  floor, 
and  from  there  they  are  run  automatically  on  a  belt  to  the  top  of  the 
stemmer,  where  they  enter  the  drum.  From  the  drum  they  fall  on 
the  separating  screens,  which  grade  them  in  three  grades,  each  one 
falling  in  a  box  of  its  own.  Somewhat  similar  stemmers  are  seen  in 
all  the  large  vineyards,  all  run  by  steam  and  large  enough  to  stem  and 
grade  from  forty  to  sixty  tons  of  raisins  a  day.  There  is  considerable 
difference  as  to  the  ingenuity  with  which  these  stemmers  are  built, 
some  requiring  many  more  hands  to  run  them  than  others.  The 
Butler  stemmer  requires,  part  of  the  time,  only  one  man  for  its  success- 
ful running.  The  Forsyth  stemmer  stands  under  a  shed  in  the  open 
air,  apart  from  the  packing-house,  in  order  that  the  dust  may  be  freely 
carried  away.  The  smaller  vineyards  have  stemmers  run  by  hand,  and 
have  separate  graders  also  run  by  hand,  large  enough  to  stem  and 
grade  from  five  to  eight  tons  of  raisins  per  day. 


Raisin  Lever  Press. 


156  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

The  Presses. — These  are  of  two  kinds,  screw  presses  and  lever 
presses.  The  screw  press  is  much  preferable  (at  least  until  the  lever 
press  may  be  perfected),  as  with  it  we  can  gauge  the  pressure  given 
the  raisins.  The  only  press  of  this  kind  is  found  on  the  Raisina  vine- 
yard of  T.  C.  White.  The  press  that  is  generally  adopted,  and  the 
one  that  is  most  handy,  is  the  lever  press,  which  is  so  constructed  that 
four  boxes  of  raisins  can  be  kept  in  the  press  at  one  time,  or  until  the 
last  box  or  part  of  a  box  is  ready.  By  a  pressure  with  the  foot,  the 
levers  are  released  and  the  boxes  freed  from  the  pressure.  While  this 
press  is  exceedingly  handy  and  quickly  worked,  the  pressure  cannot 
readily  be  gauged,  and  the  raisins  are  apt  to  be  injured  by  too  heavy 
pressure.  But  it  is  likely  that  improvements  will  soon  be  made  which 
will  remedy  this  defect. 

Boxes  and  Cartoons. — The  California  raisin  boxes  are  of  three 
*  kinds, — whole  boxes  of  twenty  pounds,  halves  of  ten  pounds  and 
>  quarters  of  five  pounds.  The  wholes  and  the  quarters  are  those  most 
used,  while  the  halves  are  seldom  used  or  required.  The  cartoons  are 
made  of  paper  and  contain  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  raisins  each. 
The  following  are  the  measurements  of  raisin  boxes  and  cartoons,  and 
of  the  lumber  required  for  making  them.  Twenty-pound  box:  9  x  18  x 
4^4  inches.  Ten-pound  box:  9x18x2^  inches.  Five-pound  box:  9x 
i8x  i%6  inches.  The  foregoing  are  inside  measurements.  The  tops 
and  bottoms  are  one-quarter  inch  thick,  19^  inches  long  and  9^  inches 
wide.  The  sides  of  the  twenty-pound  box  are  19^  inches  long, 
4^4  inches  wide  and  three-eighths  inches  thick.  The  ends  of  a  twenty- 
pound  box  are  9  inches  long,  4^  inches  wide  and  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  thick.  The  sides  of  the  ten-pound  box  are  19^  inches  long, 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick  and  2^  inches  wide.  The  ends  of  a 
ten-pound  box  are  9  inches  long,  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick  and  2^4 
inches  wide.  The  sides  of  a  five-pound  box  are  19^  inches  long, 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick  and  i%6  inches  wide.  The  two  and 
one-half  pound  cartoon  is  five  inches  wide,  ten  inches  long  and  one  and 
one-half  inches  deep. 

Packing  Frames  or  Packing  Trays. — These  are  of  two  kinds,  accord- 
ing to  the  method  of  packing.  For  the  top-up  method,  wooden  frames 
large  enough  to  hold  five  pounds  of  raisins  are  used.  In  length  and 
width  these  frames  correspond  with  the  raisin  box,  but  in  height 
they  are  only  one-third  of  a  whole  box,  or  about  one  and  one-half 
inches.  The  bottom  is  a  sliding  one,  and  can  be  pulled  out  broadwise. 
The  frame  is  first  lined  on  the  inside  with  the  necessary  paper,  and 
then  five  pounds  of  raisins  are  placed  in  the  paper.  A  follower  or  block 
of  wood,  large  enough  to  fill  the  form  or  frame,  is  then  placed  on  top, 
the  frame  is  placed  over  an  empty  box,  the  sliding  bottom  quickly 
withdrawn,  and  the  whole  contents  fall  in  the  box  below  undisturbed. 
For  the  top-down  method,  frames  of  galvanized  iron  are  used,  slightly 
deeper  than  the  former,  but  the  bottom  is  a  drop-bottom,  resting  on  a 
flange,  instead  of  a  sliding  bottom,  as  in  the  former  tray.  A  loose 
plate  of  zinc  is  placed  on  top  of  the  frame,  the  latter  is  inverted  and 
placed  over  the  box,  and  the  zinc  plate  quickly  withdrawn,  when  the 
contents  covered  by  the  loose  drop-bottom  (or  by  the  facing-plate) 
fall  into  the  raisin  box. 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  157 

Facing-plate. — This  useful  tool  was  invented  by  T.  C.  White.  It 
consists  of  a  brass  plate  large  enough  to  fit  readily  into  the  bottom  of 
the  raisin  box.  In  this  plate  are  arranged  small  cavities,  each  one 
wide  enough  to  hold  a  large  raisin.  For  large  boxes  the  plate  is  made 
to  contain  eleven  raisins  the  short  way  and  eighteen  the  long  way. 
The  plate  is  first  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  iron  frame  in  place  of  the 
loose  bottom.  A  raisin  is  placed  in  each  cavity  and  lightly  pressed, 
and  loose  raisins  are  carefully  filled  in  on  the  top.  When  this  frame 
is  afterwards  reversed  and  the  raisins  and  the  plate  as  follower  are 
received  in  the  box,  it  will  be  found  that  the  top  layer  has  retained  its 
arrangement  and  is  regularly  faced.  This  facing-plate  enables  the 
packer  to  face  quickly  and  cheaply,  but  it  can  only  be  used  when  the 
top-down  method  of  packing  is  used.  The  standard  plate  is  nine 
inches  by  eighteen  inches,  and  the  plate  for  cartoons  is  five  inches  by 
ten  inches,  both  made  of  heavy  brass. 

Scales. — For  weighing  the  quantity  of  raisins  necessary  for  every 
layer,  scales  must  be  found  on  every  weighing  table.  Any  ordinary 
grocery  scales  which  work  with  springs  may  be  used.  Generally  one 
pair  of  such  scales  are  used  at  each  end  of  the  assorting  table. 

Labeling  Press. — Of  late  every  large  packer  labels  his  boxes  before 
they  are  nailed  together.  This  is  done  by  passing  the  shooks  through 
a  labeling  press,  which  prints  under  pressure  the  required  label  on 
each  side  or  top,  the  name,  etc.,  appearing  in  concave  type  on  their 
face.  These  presses  are  run  by  machinery  and  work  very  rapidly. 

Tables. — In  the  packing-house  are  tables  of  various  kinds;  they  are 
generally  long  and  narrow,  and  about  four  feet  wide.  The  assorting 
tables  should  be  furnished  with  square  holes  at  intervals  of  five  or  six 
feet,  so  that  the  loose  raisins  may  be  scraped  through  them  into  boxes 
below.  The  assorting  and  weighing  tables  are  furnished  with  a  low 
flange  or  guard  all  around,  to  prevent  any  raisins  falling  on  the  floor. 

Bags  and  Bag-holders. — Two  kinds  of  bags  are  used, — cotton  sacks 
or  jute  sacks.  The  former  are  white  like  flower  sacks,  the  latter 
coarser  and  brownish.  In  the  former  no  paper  linings  are  used,  but  in 
the  latter  a  paper  bag  is  stitched,  in  order  that  the  air  may  not  pene- 
trate and  dry  the  raisins.  Both  kinds  of  bags  are  used  to  an  equal 
extent.  The  cotton  sacks  contain  either  thirty  or  sixty  pounds,  while 
the  jute  sacks  are  made  to  contain  an  average  of  eighty  pounds  each. 
Patented  bag-holders  are  used  everywhere  for  holding  the  bags  open 
while  they  are  being  filled. 

Trucks. — For  inside  work,  trucks  very  similar  to  those  used  in  the 
vineyard  are  now  generally  adopted.  They  are  handled  with  ease,  and 
for  moving  boxes  of  various  kinds  are  absolutely  indispensable  in  the 
modern  raisin  packing-house. 

Trays  for  Weighing. — These  are  small,  shallow  boxes,  made  of  zinc 
or  tin,  and  large  enough  to  hold  five  pounds  of  raisins  each.  One 
short  side  of  the  tray  should  be  slanting  outward  in  order  that  the 
raisins  may  fall  out  readily.  They  are  only  used  in  weighing  the 
raisins  which  are  to  go  in  each  five-pound  layer  in  the  whole  boxes. 

Followers. — These  are  wooden  blocks  of  the  size  of  a  quarter  box  of 
raisins,  inside  measurement.  They  should  be  lined  with  zinc  on  the  flat 


158  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

sides,  in  order  that  they  may  be  washed  readily,  and  also  to  prevent 
the  sugar  of  the  raisins  from  adhering  to  them.  They  should  be  large 
enough  to  just  fit  inside  a  box  or  frame,  and  are  used  to  keep  the  raisins 
steady  while  being  changed  from  the  frame  to  the  box.  They  are  also 
placed  on  top  of  the  raisin  frames  when  they  are  being  pressed. 

Paper. — Several  kinds  of  paper  are  used  in  the  raisin  business. 
Heavy  yellow  manilla  paper  is  used  to  place  in  the  sweatboxes,  one 
sheet  between  every  two  layers  of  raisins.  The  paper  should  be 
heavy,  and  cut  to  fit  the  box.  Many  growers  use  too  short  paper, 
which  always  has  the  inconvenience  of  causing  the  raisins  to  mix  and 
become  entangled.  Only  one  whole  sheet  of  paper  should  be  used  at 
a  time;  two  short  sheets  will  not  answer,  as,  in  lifting  out  a  layer  of 
raisins,  the  assorter  takes  hold  of  the  four  corners  of  the  paper,  and 
thus  readily  lifts  out  the  raisin  block.  Lighter  paper  for  lining  the 
raisin  boxes  is  used,  both  for  layers  and  loose.  The  paper  generally 
used  is  common  book  paper  twenty-one  by  twenty-eight  inches,  and 
forty,  fifty  or  sixty  pounds  to  the  ream  in  quality.  Previous  to  being 
used,  this  paper  is  cut  to  fit  the  tray,  a  square  piece  being  cut  out  of 
every  corner.  When  placed  in  the  tray,  the  central  part  of  the 
paper  fits  the  bottom  of  the  tray,  while  the  sides  of  the  paper  extend 
sufficiently  over  the  sides  of  the  tray  to  meet  on  top  when  folded  over 
the  raisins.  Waxed  tissue  paper  should  always  be  placed  on  the  top 
of  the  raisins  in  order  to  prevent  the  moisture  from  the  raisins  in- 
juring the  colored  and  artistic  labels. 

Colored  lithographs  or  chromos  of  various  designs  and  qualities  are 
used  for  all  raisins  packed  in  boxes.  When  bought  they  come  in 
three  sizes.  The  central  label  should  be  nearly  the  size  of  the  face  of 
the  box.  The  top  labels  are  shorter  pieces,  almost  as  wide  as  the  box, 
but  only  a  few  inches  long.  They  are  previously  pasted  to  the  top 
flaps  of  the  lining.  The  side  labels  are  twice  as  long  as  the  face  of  the 
box,  but  not  quite  half  as  wide  ;  they  are  similarly  pasted  on  the  long 
side  flaps  of  the  lining.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  designs  used,  some 
of  which  are  not  appropriate.  Whatever  designs  we  use,  it  will  be  to 
the  advantage  of  every  country  not  to  imitate,  but  to  use  labels  char- 
acteristic of  the  country  and  locality  where  the  raisins  are  made. 

Tin  Boxes. — For  packing  raisins  for  tropical  countries,  boxes  made 
of  tin  should  be  used.  The  dampness  in  those  countries  causes  raisins 
packed  the  common  way  to  mold  and  spoil.  No  box  should  contain 
more  than  ten  pounds  of  raisins,  and  the  top  should  be  so  soldered  on 
that  it  can  be  removed  without  cutting  or  injuring  the  box.  The 
French  system  of  soldering  on  by  means  of  a  narrow  strip  of  tin,  which 
can  be  wound  up,  is  admirable,  and  could  hardly  be  improved  upon. 
Five  ten-pound  boxes  should  be  packed  in  a  light  case  made  of  light 
timber,  and  the  whole  package  when  closed  should  not  weigh  over 
sixty  pounds.  Four  such  cases  will  make  one  mule-load,  and  two 
such  cases  can  be  conveniently  carried  by  one  man. 

LOOSE  RAISINS. 

Stemming  and  Assorting. — It  must  be  understood  that  all  the  me- 
chanical appliances  and  tools  mentioned  above  should  now  be  on  hand 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  159 

ready  for  use  and  properly  placed.  The  several  different  operations  in 
packing,  stemming,  assorting,  etc.,  of  both  loose  and  layers,  will  at  times 
be  carried  on  in  different  parts  of  the  packing  establishment  at  the 
same  time,  so  as  to  meet  the  requirements  of  mixed  lots  or  orders,  the 
general  shipments  being  of  that  nature.  L,oose  and  layer  raisins  are 
produced  more  or  less  from  almost  every  sweatbox  brought  into  the 
packing-house,  and  the  only  delay  to  their  being  immediately  disposed 
of  is  because  the  layer  raisins  must  be  sweated  or  equalized  before 
they  are  ready  for  use.  The  loose  raisins,  provided  they  are  properly 
or  sufficiently  dried,  are  ready  to  be  handled  as  soon  as  brought  from 
the  vineyard.  A  loose  raisin,  or  a  bunch  from  which  loose  raisins  are 
to  be  made,  must  be  overdried  rather  than  underdried ;  at  any  rate,  it 
must  be  so  dry,  that  no  juice  will  come  out  of  it  when  the  raisin  is 
squeezed  heavily  or  even  torn.  But  a  matter  of  greater  importance 
even  is  that  the  stems  should  be  brittle  or  sufficiently  dry  to  break  off 
readily.  If  they  do  not  break,  the  raisins  cannot  be  easily  separated 
from  the  stem.  The  stems,  instead  of  breaking  off,  will  tear  off,  and 
the  raisins  will  be  open  to  the  entrance  of  air,  which  will  cause  them  to 
undergo  a  chemical  change,  to  sugar  and  deteriorate. 

As  soon  as  a  perfectly  dried  sweatbox  of  third-grade  or  loose  raisins  \^- 
enters  the  packing-house,  it  should  be  taken  to  the  stemmer.  Any 
delay  in  this  is  injurious  to  the  raisins,  as  they  will  rapidly  undergo 
a  sweating  or  equalizing,  causing  the  stems  to  soften  and  to  lose  their 
brittleness.  It  will,  therefore,  be  seen  that  loose  raisins  must  on  no 
account  be  sweated  or  equalized  before  they  have  been  stemmed. 
Besides,  if  the  raisins  are  in  any  way  moist,  they  will  not  shed  the 
dust  and  dirt  when  being  passed  through  the  stemmer.  It  is  there- 
fore to  every  raisin-grower's  interest  to  so  hasten  the  drying  of  the 
loose  raisins  that  as  many  of  them  as  possible  can  be  out  of  the  way 
when  the  layers,  which  take  longer  to  dry,  come  in.  This,  as  we 
have  shown  before,  can  only  be  done  by  assorting  the  raisins  while 
green,  and  at  the  moment  they  are  being  picked  from  the  vines. 
The  different  size  bunches  dry  at  different  times,  and  the  loose  can 
then  be  partially  disposed  of  when  the  layers  are  ready.  The  stem- 
mer and  grader  should  separate  the  raisins  in  at  least  three  grades : 
Number  one,  large  loose;  number  two,  smaller  loose;  number  three, 
smallest  seedless,  to  which  may  be  added  a  number  four,  or  rubbish. 
The  large  loose  bring  always  a  good  price,  and  great  care  should  be 
taken  with  them.  After  having  passed  through  the  stemmer  and 
assorter  once,  they  should  be  passed  through  a  second  or  third  time, 
in  order  that  all  the  inferior  or  smaller  raisins  may  be  eliminated. 
In  this  way,  a  fine,  large  number  one  is  had,  which  is  sure  to  give 
satisfaction.  Number  two  loose  may  be  passed  through  a  second 
time  if  the  stemmer  has  not  done  its  full  duty,  and  the  same  may 
also  be  done  with  number  three  seedless.  It  always  pays  to  do  a 
thing  well,  and  this  holds  good  with  raisins  as  with  everything  else. 
Colonel  Forsyth,  who  has  acquired  a  high  reputation  for  his  loose 
raisins,  advocates  and  practices  this  repeated  assorting,  especially  of 
the  number  one  grade,  in  order  that  it  may  be  entirely  uniform.  Too 
many  poor  raisins  are  generally  found  among  the  small  seedless,  and 


160 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 


if  they  are  to  be  made  to  partially  replace  the  seedless  Sultanas  or  the 
Currants  in  the  same  manner  as  the  number  two  is  expected  to  re- 
place the  imported  Valencias,  they  must  be  made  clean  from  all 
rubbish.  Only  by  producing  a  superior  article  can  we  hope  to  replace 
the  imported  dipped  raisins  by  our  loose  Muscatels. 

Packing  and  Cleaning. — The  number  one  and  two  loose  aie  always 
put  up  in  whole  boxes  of  twenty  pounds  each,  never  in  quarter  boxes, 
but  sometimes  in  cartoons,  to  be  used  as  samples  or  as  holiday  gifts. 
In  packing  whole  boxes,  they  may  either  be  faced  or  not.  If  not 
faced,  the  work  is  very  simple.  The  raisins  are  first  brought  to  a 
large  separate  table  with  a  guard  all  around  its  edges,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  raisins  from  falling  to  the  floor.  On  each  such  table  are 
one  or  more  small  scales.  The  workmen  gather  the  raisins  with  small 
shovels,  and  place  them  in  quantities  of  twenty  pounds  each  in  tin 
trays,  with  the  guards  slanting  at  one  end,  in  order  that  the  raisins 
may  fall  out  readily.  These  trays  are  then  immediately  carried  by 
other  hands  to  the  packing-table  close  by.  Here  the  proper  papers 
are  being  placed  in  regular  whole  raisin  boxes,  the  loose  raisins  are 
poured  in  from  the  trays,  and  from  time  to  time  looked  over  and 
cleaned.  All  poor  or  inferior  raisins  should  be  carefully  eliminated, 
and  only  good  ones  allowed  to  be  boxed.  Finally  the  paper  leaves 
are  folded  over,  and  the  boxes  are  taken  away  to  be  nailed  up.  Num- 
ber two  undergoes  the  very  same  process  when  packed  in  boxes. 


Raisin  Truck  for  Packing-house. 

Sacking. — A  very  large  trade  is  springing  up  in  sacked  raisins,  and 
the  demand  for  them  is  increasing  every  year.  Both  numbers  two 
and  three  grades  loose  are  now  exported  this  way  either  in  cotton 
sacks,  or  in  jute  sacks  lined  inside  with  paper.  The  jute  sacks 
are  by  many  preferred  on  account  of  their  showing  the  dirt  less, 
the  cotton  sacks  generally  arriving  soiled  at  their  destination.  If 
cotton  sacks  are  used  for  shipment  East,  they  should  be  first  placed 
in  common  burlap  sacks,  in  order  to  arrive  clean  and  attractive.  The 
extra  expense  is  not  great,  as  the  cheapest  kind  can  be  used  for  this 
purpose. 

Facing,  Top-up  Method. — The  facing  is  quickly  done  with  the  aid 
of  White's  facing-plate,  but  it  can  also  be  accomplished  without  it  if 
the  packer  may  so  desire.  The  facing-plate,  however,  is  greatly  to 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  161 

be  preferred,  as  we  shall  show  directly.     If  no  plate  is  used,  the  opera- 
tion is  as  follows  :  At  the  filling  table,  fifteen  pounds  of  loose  raisins 
are  weighed  off  directly  in  the  twenty-pound  boxes.     Then  five  pounds 
loose  are  weighed  separately  in   a  tin  tray.     The  whole  boxes  are 
taken  to  the  packing-table  and  placed  close  to  the  press,  one  on  top  of 
the  other,  the  smaller  trays,  with  five  pounds  each,  are  brought  to  the 
facer,  who  now  takes  one  of  the  loose  wooden  frames  with  a  sliding 
bottom  and  places  in  it  the  necessary  papers.     He  then  fills  in  the  five 
pounds  of  loose  raisins,  smooths  and  spreads  them  out,  and  sees  that 
no  bad  berries  are  among  the  good  ones.     This  operation  may  also  be 
performed  by  different  hands,  so  as  to  divide  up  the  work.     This  is 
probably  the  best  and  most  economical  way.      The  next  step  is  to 
take  the  tray  to  the  press  and  subject  it  to  a  certain  pressure,  so  as  to 
get  a  smooth  upper  surface  on  which  to  face  or  place  the  raisins  in 
rows.     When  this  is  done  the  tray  is  taken  to  the  facer.     The  facer 
now  has  in  front  of  him  a  tray  filled  with  the  ornamental  papers  and 
the  five  pounds  of  raisins.     The  surface  of  the  raisins  is  smooth  and 
even.     The  next  operation  is  to  place  large  raisins  in  rows  on  the  top 
surface.     A  small  box  with  loose,  large  raisins  should  be  at  the  side  of 
the  facer,  who  in  taking  each  one  of  them  at  first  presses  it  towards  the 
table  with  the  thumb  of  either  hand,  thus  flattening  out  the  raisin  in 
order  to  make  it  appear  large.     When  the  tray  is  faced,  it  may  again 
be  subjected  to  slight  pressure,  but  generally  this  is  not  needed.     The 
contents  of  the  tray  are  now  transferred  to  the  twenty-pound  box, 
which  already  contains  fifteen  pounds  of  loose.     These  loose  raisins, 
which  will  be  on  the  bottom  of  the  box,  are  not  generally  wrapped  in 
paper,  although  such  would  very  much  improve  their  appearance. 
The  box  is  now  ready  for  nailing.     This  top-up  method  is  very  inferior 
to  the  top-down  method,  as  will  be  described  further  on.     In  packing 
with  this  method,  only  the  wooden  frame  with  the  sliding  bottom  is 
used.     The  drop-bottom  frame  is  only  used  for  the  top-down  method. 
Facing,  Top-down  Method. — In  using  this  method,  the  top  layer  is 
finished  first,  and  the  bottom  last.     The  packing  is  done  as  follows: 
In  the  bottom  of  a  tin  or  galvanized-jron  tray,  previously  described,  is 
placed  one  of  White's  facing-plates.     As  will   be  remembered,  the 
frame  has  a  loose  drop-bottom,  which  falls  out  as  soon  as  the  tray  is 
turned  over.     The  facing-plate  is  placed  either  directly  on  this  loose 
bottom,  or  on  the  flange  supporting  it,  and  always  with  the  facing-cups 
upward.     The  facer  now  places  loose  selected  raisins,  one  in  each  hol- 
low, presses  his  finger  on  the  raisin  and  works  it  in  the  hollow  until  it 
becomes  flattened.     When  all  the  cavities  are  filled,  loose  raisins  are 
carefully  filled  in  until  the  tray  is  full,  when  but  a  gentle  pressure  is 
re-quired  to  steady  the  raisins  and  make  them  keep  their  places.     In 
the  meantime,  fifteen  pounds  of  raisins  have  been  put  in  twenty-pound 
boxes  and  gently  pressed.     Some  packers  of  choice  raisins  use  a  wrap- 
per and  label  for  every  layer  of  five  pounds,  which  greatly  improves 
the  general  appearance  of  the  box.     After  all  is  ready,  a  loose  zinc 
plate  is  placed  over  the  filled  frame  or  tray,  the  latter  is  reversed  and 
placed  directly  over  the  raisin  box,  in  which  has  already  been  placed 
the  required  paper  wrapper.     The  zinc  plate,  which  only  served  to 


162  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

steady  the  raisins  while  the  frame  was  being  turned,  is  now  quickly 
withdrawn,  and  the  five-pound  faced  layer  falls  down  in  the  box 
entirely  undisturbed,  kept  so  by  the  facing-plate  which  here  acted  as 
follower.  The  box  is  now  ready  for  nailing,  after  a  label  and  wax 
paper  have  first  been  placed  on  top  of  the  plate.  Without  the  facing- 
plate,  a  skilled  facer  can  face  some  forty  boxes  a  day,  while  from 
twenty  to  thirty  boxes  is  a  low  average.  With  the  facing-plate,  the 
facing  can  be  accomplished  with  more  speed  and  accuracy. 

Comparative  Value  of  the  Two  Methods. — The  top-up  method  has 
several  disadvantages.  It  requires  a  heavy  pressure  of  the  raisins  to 
create  a  smooth,  flat  surface  on  which  to  face.  But  even  if  no  facing 
is  done,  the  top  layer  will  always  be  more  or  less  uneven,  and  requires 
heavy  pressure  to  make  it  smooth,  and  appear  well  and  to  advantage. 
This  heavy  pressure  always  bursts  many  of  the  raisins,  and  causes 
them  to  sugar  and  spoil.  It  has  also  another  disadvantage,  that  the 
facing  of  the  top  layer  can  only  be  done  with  the  fancy  paper  pre- 
viously placed  in  the  box.  In  facing  and  manipulating  the  raisins, 
this  paper  becomes  more  or  less  soiled  and  wet.  In  using  the  top- 
down  method,  the  paper  is  placed  in  the  box  at  the  last  moment,  just 
before  the  final  five-pound  layer  is  emptied  from  the  tray  upon  the  fif- 
teen-pound layer  below.  I  consider  these  advantages  so  essential  that 
I  must  strongly  indorse  the  top-down  method,  and  I  believe  that,  in 
course  of  time,  it  will  be  generally  adopted  by  all  packers  who  care  for 
the  keeping  qualities  cf  their  raisins.  As  to  the  time  and  expense 
required  by  these  two  methods,  there  is  but  very  little  difference.  The 
top-down  method  is  possibly  a  little  slower  and  more  expensive,  but  it 
is  by  far  the  better,  and  the  difference  in  expense  of  packing  is  not 
great  enough  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 

LAYER  RAISINS. 

Sweating  or  Equalizing. — This  is  a  process  by  which  the  overdried 
raisins  are  made  to  attract  sufficient  moisture  from  the  underdried  raisins 
in  the  same  box  or  bunch,  and  whereby  the  overdried  raisins  are  made 
moister,  while  the  underdried  ones  become  drier.  Equalizing  also  moist- 
ens the  stems  sufficiently  to  prevent  them  from  breaking  when  being 
handled.  In  oiir  California  climate,  where  the  air  is  so  dry,  this  equal- 
izing process  is  an  absolute  necessity,  and  no  first-class  raisin  pack  can 
be  produced  without  the  raisins  having  first  been  equalized.  The  word 
"equalizing  "  is  to  be  preferred  to  -'sweating,"  as  the  latter  word  may 
be  misunderstood  as  meaning  that  a  certain  amount  of  heat  is  devel- 
oped by  storing  the  raisins.  Heat  is  indeed  necessary,  but  it  should 
come  from  the  outside  air,  not  from  the  inside  or  from  the  raisins.  If 
from  the  latter  the  raisins  will  be  in  a  fair  way  to  become  spoiled.  In 
the  foregoing  I  have  described  the  construction  and  workings  of  the 
sweathouse.  It  may  be  suggested  that,  if  there  is  no  sweathouse  on 
the  vineyard,  a  large  sail  or  canvas  may  be  used  as  a  substitute. 
The  latter  is  simply  thrown  over  the  boxes  where  they  are  piled  out- 
of-doors,  and  answers  to  some  degree  in  keeping  the  raisins  moist. 
But  as  this  is  only  a  substitute,  I  shall  not  dwell  longer  on  its  use- 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  163 

fulness.  It  may,  however,  be  said  in  favor  of  this  appliance,  that 
it  is  used  by  one  of  our  largest  packers,  and  by  him  considered  as  of 
equal  value  if  not  superior  even  to  a  regularly  constructed  equalizing 
house. 

The  raisins  which  are  to  be  sweated  are  only  the  clusters  or  layers,  X 
and  not  the  loose,  which  as  we  have  seen  should  at  once  be  taken  >p 
from  the  field  to  the  stemmer,  while  the  stems  are  yet  crisp  and  dry. 
It  is  therefore  of  importance  that  the  bunches  or  layers  should  be 
separated  from  the  loose  already  in  the  field,  or,  which  is  much  prefer- 
able, before  they  are  dried,  at  the  time  when  they  are  picked  from  the 
vines.  If  the  latter  is  done  properly,  there  will  be  only  a  small  quan- 
tity of  loose  which  will  go  in  the  sweating-house  with  the  layers. 
The  layers  should  at  any  rate  be  placed  at  once  in  sweatboxes  when 
taken  from  the  trays,  and  between  every  two  layers  of  bunches  there 
should  be  a  stout  sheet  of  manilla  paper,  in  order  that  the  bunches  may 
not  become  mixed.  When  taken  to  the  sweathouse  the  boxes  should  be 
so  placed  that  air  can  enter  every  one.  It  will  not  do  to  place  one  box 
on  top  of  another  so  as  to  cover  up  the  top  entirely,  as  the  raisins  are 
then  apt  to  ferment  in  a  very  short  time,  and,  before  the  raisin-packer 
is  aware,  whole  piles  may  be  absolutely  spoiled.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  place  the  boxes  crosswise,  as  it  is  enough  to  allow  the  short  side  of 
each  box  to  overlap  the  underlying  box  a  little;  sufficient  air  will  then 
enter.  In  very  dry  weather  the  floor  of  the  sweathouse  may  be  sprin- 
kled with  water,  but  this  is  generally  not  needed,  as  the  underdried 
raisins  will  give  out  moisture  enough  to  soften  those  that  are  too  dry, 
as  well  as  the  stems.  Every  day  the  sweathouse  should  be  aired,  and 
it  is  a  mistake  to  believe  that  all  air  should  be  excluded.  If  air  is  not 
daily  admitted,  the  raisins  will  mold  and  spoil,  and  it  is  even  advisa- 
ble to  keep  a  circulation  of  air  constantly  through  the  house  during 
the  daytime.  The  attentive  packer  will  soon  learn  to  regulate  this, 
and  nothing  but  actual  experience  with  his  particular  sweathouse 
will  enable  him  to  decide  how  much  air  should  be  let  in  and  to  what 
extent  the  doors  should  be  closed. 

At  the  end  of  from  ten  days  to  three  weeks,  the  equalizing  process 
should  be  over,  and  the  layers  ready  for  further  packing.  When  the 
boxes  are  removed,  it  will  be  found  that  the  majority  of  those  raisins 
which  had  been  too  moist  or  underdried  have  dried  sufficiently,  while 
on  the  contrary  the  overdried  raisins,  as  well  as  the  formerly  brittle 
stems,  will  have  acquired  sufficient  moisture  to  enable  the  packer  to 
manipulate  them  without  risk  of  breaking  the  bunches.  The  raisins 
should  be  pliable,  and  stand  moderate  pressure  without  cracking  or 
breaking.  But  while  equalizing  is  an  important  operation,  and  one 
which  we  cannot  dispense  with,  it  is  always  to  the  grower's  interest 
to  so  dry  his  raisins  previously  that  they  will  require  as  little  equal- 
izing as  possible,  as  even  the  most  carefully  sweated  raisins  which 
have  once  been  overdried  will  never  afterwards  equal  those  which 
were  at  once  properly  dried  in  the  field.  The  overdried  raisins  will 
always  have  a  tougher  skin  and  be  inferior  in  color;  but  on  the  other 
hand  they  will  keep  better  than  raisins  which  have  been  dried  less. 


164  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

Grading  and  Weighing. — The  next  step  after  the  raisins  have  been 
equalized  is  to  remove  them  to  the  grading  tables.  This  should  not 
be  done  by  dumping  the  contents  of  a  sweatbox  on  the  table,  as  in 
this  way  but  very  few  of  the  real  choice  bunches  are  saved  for  the 
packer.  If,  however,  the  raisins  have  been  placed  carelessly  in  the 
boxes,  without  sufficient  or  perhaps  without  any  man  ilia  papers  between 
the  layers,  the  only  way  is  to  dump  out  the  contents.  By  first  placing 
the  sweatbox  on  the  long  side,  and  then  turning  it  over,  the  raisins 
are  but  slightly  disturbed.  But  to  get  these  out  afterwards  from  the 
chunk  is  the  great  difficulty,  and  many  bunches  must  necessarily  be 
broken.  If,  again,  the  raisins  have  been  carefully  handled  and  con- 
signed to  the  sweatboxes,  with  four  papers  in  every  box,  not  counting 
in  the  top  cover,  the  care  and  handling  of  the  sweatboxes  will  be 
much  simplified.  The  sweatbox  is  then  placed  alongside  of  the  grading 
table,  and  each  layer  with  its  paper  is  lifted  out  carefully,  and  placed 
on  the  table.  The  assorting  is  now  to  begin.  The  bunches  are  taken 
up  one  by  one,  all  inferior  berries  are  clipped  out,  all  soft  ones  are  sep- 
arated and  placed  in  a  box  by  themselves  to  be  further  dried.  As  each 
bunch  is  examined  and  cleaned,  it  is  put  in  one  of  the  weighing  trays 
resting  on  small  scales  at  either  end  of  the  table,  and,  when  the 
scales  indicate  that  five  pounds  of  raisins  are  in  the  tray,  the  latter  is 
removed  to  the  packing  table. 

In  the  meantime  all  loose  or  inferior  bunches  are  raked  down  through 
the  openings  in  the  grading  tables  and  received  in  sweatboxes  below, 
to  be  either  further  dried  or  to  be  stemmed  and  graded  at  once.  In 
packing  several  grades  of  layer  raisins,  the  grading  of  the  bunches 
should  be  made  at  this  table.  No  great  choice  in  selecting  the 
bunches  should  be  left  to  the  packer,  as  his  time  should  alone  be 
occupied  with  the  packing  of  his  box.  The  best  way  is  to  have  dif- 
ferently colored  scales  for  number  one  and  number  two  layers,  and 
when  taking  them  out  of  the  sweatbox  assort  them  at  once  by  placing 
them  in  different  trays.  The  graders  can  never  be  too  careful.  No 
moist  raisins,  no  small  ones,  no  red  and  poor  raisins,  should  ever  be 
allowed  among  a  better  quality.  They  will  lower  the  grade  of  the 
whole  box,  while  the  good  quality  of  high-grade  raisins  will  not  raise 
the  grade  of  a  generally  poor  box.  Thus,  while  the  many  good 
raisins  in  a  poor  box  are  not  paid  for  according  to  their  value,  the 
few  poor  raisins  which  will  be  accidentally  or  carelessly  smuggled  in 
a  good  box  will  lower  the  value  of  the  whole.  Few  packers  will  suffi- 
ciently understand  this,  which  is  really  the  principle  of  all  good  pack- 
ing, and  which  should  be  scrupulously  adhered  to.  Even  inferior 
size  berries,  if  otherwise  ever  so  good,  should  be  carefully  clipped 
from  the  large-berried  bunches.  It  is  astonishing  how  quickly  the 
buyer  will  notice  a  few  small  berries,  and  how  readily  he  will  ignore 
the  value  of  the  largest  raisins  in  the  box. 

Packing  Layers,  Top-up  Method. — As  with  packing  the  loose  raisins, 
there  are  two  methods,  the  top  up  and  the  top  down.  The  top-up 
method  can  be  as  little  recommended  in  this  case  as  in  the  former,  but 
as  it  is  used  by  many  of  the  packers  I  will  here  describe  it :  The 
trays  containing  the  five-pound  layers  are  placed  in  front  of  the 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  165 

packer  on  the  packing  table,  so  as  to  be  within  easy  reach  of  the 
packer.  The  trays  or  frames  with  the  sliding  bottom  are  now  used. 
The  first  move  is  to  place  one  of  the  inner  paper  wrappers  in  the  tray, 
and  next  the  layers  are  placed  in  the  frame  as  carefully  as  possible. 
There  are  two  ways  in  vogue  in  which  this  is  done.  One  of  them  is  to 
crowd  the  raisins  to  one  side, — "bunch"  them,  so  to  say,  beginning 
at  one  end  of  the  tray  and  gradually  working  towards  the  other  end. 
This  is  the  wrong  way,  which  I  am  sorry  to  say  is  used  by  very  many 
packers,  who  desire  speed  above  everything,  thus  sacrificing  care  and 
quality  and  even  appearance.  Raisins  packed  this  way  point  their 
ends  upwards  in  a  slanting  way,  which  not  only  detracts  from  their 
appearance,  but  causes  them  to  get  entanged  in  each  other.  Such 
bunches  when  pressed  will  generally  break,  and,  when  lifted  out  of  the 
box  afterwards,  will  be  very  different  from  what  they  were  when  they 
were  placed  there  in  the  first  instance.  The  raisins,  whatever  method 
is  used,  should  always  be  placed  flat  on  the  bottom  of  the  tray.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  arrange  them  so  that  they  will  fit,  and  only  very  few 
broken  bunches  should  be  allowed  to  fill  unoccupied  corners  or  spaces 
in  the  box.  It  is  better  even  to  leave  such  spaces  empty  than  to  tear 
up  good  bunches  in  order  to  get  the  small  quantities  needed,  or  in 
using  inferior  berries  to  fill  up  the  holes. 

When  at  last  the  tray  is  full,  and  all  the  five  pounds  of  raisins  from 
the  weighing  tray  are  in,  the  upper  surface  should  be  smooth  so  as 
to  require  as  little  pressure  as  possible.  When  full  the  trays  are  taken 
to  the  press  and  stored  on  a  side  table  until  actually  used.  The  presses 
are  generally  arranged  for  four  trays.  These  are  now  placed  under 
the  press,  a  follower  is  placed  on  the  top  of  every  tray,  and  only  suf- 
ficient pressure  applied.  Frequently  too  much  pressure  is  used,  and 
the  raisins  are  flattened  out  to  their  greatest  possible  extent,  many 
even  crushed  and  so  broken  that  the  juice  runs  out.  All  such  crushed 
raisins  will  sugar  in  a  few  months,  and  the  whole  box  containing  them 
will  spoil  and  deteriorate  in  value.  If,  again,  the  raisins  have  been 
properly  pressed,  they  will  keep  for  months  or  even  years.  After  the 
trays  have  been  sufficiently  pressed^,  which  generally  is  accomplished 
in  one  minute's  time,  the  pressure  is  released,  the  follower  removed, 
the  folders  turned  over  the  raisins,  and  the  trays  removed  to  the  box- 
ing table,  on  which  they  may  be  allowed  to  accumulate  until  the  boxer 
is  ready  to  fill  his  boxes.  On  this  table  the  final  packing  or  "making 
up' '  of  a  box  is  done.  It  takes  four  of  these  five-pound  frames  to  fill 
one  whole  box.  Each  tray  is  in  its  turn  placed  over  a  box,  the  sliding 
bottom  is  quickly  removed,  and  the  five-pound  layer  drops  down  in 
the  box  undisturbed.  Every  fourth  frame  should,  in  addition  to  the 
common  paper  wrapper,  have  labels  and  fancy  paper  pasted  on  the 
folders,  or,  as  is  sometimes  done,  an  extra  fancy  folder  or  wrapper  is 
placed  on  the  third  layer,  and  on  the  top  or  inside  of  it  the  fourth  layer 
is  dropped.  Each  layer  will  thus  be  found  in  its  own  wrapper,  but 
the  upper  layer  will  have  two,  the  outside  one  of  which  is  fancy.  Fine 
layers  should  have  a  waxed  paper  immediately  above  the  raisins,  in 
order  that  the  moisture  or  sugar  from  them  may  not  spoil  the  labels. 


166  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

On  the  top  of  the  waxed  paper  the  chromo  or  label  is  placed.  The 
box  is  now  ready  for  nailing. 

Packing  Layers,  Top-down  Method. — This  method  I  advocate  as  the 
most  proper  one  to  use.  Thin  galvanized-iron  trays  with  a  drop  bot- 
tom are  used.  On  the  top  of  the  drop  bottom  is  placed  a  heavy  fol- 
lower of  metal.  White's  facing-plate,  turned  over,  can  be  used  to  great 
advantage,  even  where  no  facing  is  required.  The  choicest  bunches 
are  now  selected  and  spread  evenly  on  the  bottom  of  the  tray ;  other 
bunches  are  placed  on  top  of  them,  and  so  on  until  the  tray  is  full. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  in  packing  so  as  to  make  the  bunches  fit 
each  other  and  lie  solid;  otherwise  they  are  very  apt  to  be  disturbed, 
or  they  will  require  too  heavy  pressure  to  be  kept  in  place.  When  the 
tray  is  full,  it  is  gently  pressed,  and  the  pressure  kept  up  for  a  few 
seconds.  A  loose  zinc  plate  is  then  placed  over  the  tray,  the  latter  is 
turned  over  and  placed  over  the  box,  in  which  the  necessary  wrapping 
papers  have  been  previously  placed,  the  loose  zinc  plate  is  quickly 
withdrawn,  and  the  contents  fall  into  the  box.  The  heavy  follower 
keeps  the  top  layer  steady,  and  with  a  little  care  the  raisins  are  not 
disturbed. 

The  top-down  method  for  packing  layers  has  the  following  advan- 
tages over  the  top-up  method.  It  gives  a  smooth  surface  on  which  to 
pack  the  top  layer,  without  necessitating  pressure  to  first  create  such  a 
surface,  the  packing  being  done  on  a  hard  plate.  The  wrappers  are 
not  soiled,  as  they  are  not  first  placed  in  the  frames.  The  packer  is 
enabled  to  pack  and  select  his  choicest  bunches  for  the  top  layer  while 
he  has  plenty  to  select  from,  and  any  odd  berries  and  broken  or  smaller 
bunches  come  naturally  in  the  bottom  of  each  layer.  In  the  top-up 
method  all  such  odds  remain  for  the  top,  where  they  must  go  in,  in 
order  to  make  up  the  required  five  pounds. 

A  raisin-packer  averages  seventy-five  trays  of  five  pounds  each  per 
day,  for  which  she  is  paid  two  cents  each.  Some  pack  more  than  this; 
but  very  excellent  packing  proceeds  slower,  and  a  packer  of  very  choice 
layers  can  only  pack  twenty-five  trays  of  five  pounds  each  per  day,  for 
which  a  correspondingly  higher  price  is  paid.  In  Malaga,  a  trained 
and  expert  packer  receives  between  two  and  three  dollars  per  day.  In 
California,  they  do  not  receive  any  more.  In  our  raisin  district,  the 
girls  are  rapidly  becoming  expert  packers,  and  the  same  ones  are  reen- 
gaged year  after  year  by  the  same  packing-house. 

Filling. — The  filling  of  the  raisins  is  a  trick  to  make  them  appear 
larger  than  they  are.  This  filling  was  invented  in  Spain,  and  is  used 
there  especially  on  Dehesa  boxes  and  where  very  expensive  packing 
is  required.  It  is  done  in  the  following  manner.  The  raisin  is  first 
flattened  out  as  much  as  possible,  then  the  edges  are  bent,  making  the 
raisins  slightly  concave.  In  placing  the  concave  side  downwards,  a 
smaller  raisin  is  slipped  underneath  so  as  to  cause  the  manipulated 
raisin  to  keep  its  shape.  These  filled  raisins  are  used  for  facing  only. 
The  Spanish  filled  raisins  have  been  handled  to  such  an  extent  that 
all  the  bloom  is  lost,  and  the  raisin  looks  anything  but  attractive. 
The  California  method  of  filling  is  a  great  improvement  on  the 
Spanish  way.  When  the  facing-plate  is  used,  the  raisin  is  first  placed 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  167 

in  a  cavity  on  the  plate,  then  worked  out  by  a  pressure  with  the 
finger,  and  when  sufficiently  concave  another  raisin  is  dropped  in  the 
hollow  and  pressed  tightly.  The  faced  raisin  is  thus  filled,  and  when 
seen  from  the  other  side  will  appear  much  larger  than  otherwise. 
When,  again,  the  top-up  method  of  packing  is  used,  a  small  block  of 
wood  may  be  employed.  This  block  contains  a  single  cavity  of  the 
size,  that  a  raisin  when  pressed  will  fill  it.  The  counterpart  of  this 
block  is  furnished  with  a  convex  protuberance,  and  when  the  two 
halves  are  placed  together  with  a  raisin  between,  and  pressure  is 
brought  to  bear,  the  raisin  flattens  out  and  becomes  concave  just 
enough  to  receive  the  filling. 

In  this  way  no  handling  with  the  fingers  is  done,  and  the  raisin 
keeps  its  bloom  undisturbed.  Nothing  is  more  attractive  than  a  raisin 
with  its  bloom  untouched;  similarly  the  raisin  that  has  lost  its  bloom 
always  gives  the  buyer  an  idea  that  it  has  been  fingered.  Its  appe- 
tizing quality  is  gone.  Spanish  Dehesas  are  generally  both  faced  and 
filled.  Some  objection  to  this  method  is  that  it  deceives,  but  as  long 
as  people  not  only  are  willing  to  be  deceived  but  are  actually  anxious 
to  pay  for  the  deception,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  filling  should  not 
be  used.  The  deception,  besides,  is  a  very  innocent  one.  It  has  also 
another  excuse:  A  well  faced  and  filled  box  is  really  a  work  of  art; 
it  will  help  to  educate  the  people  up  to  the  appreciation  of  what  fine 
raisins  and  fine  packing  should  be.  Filling  and  facing  combined  are 
practiced  but  little  in  California,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  filled  facing  will 
ever  grow  in  much  demand  here. 

Nailing  and  Trimming. — The  boxes  are  next  moved  to  the  nailing 
table.  Two  nails  are  put  in  the  short  sides  and  two  in  the  long  sides 
of  the  cover.  The  boxes  when  nailed  are  passed  to  the  trimmer,  who 
with  a  drawknife  trims  the  edges  and  cuts  off  the  corners  diagonally. 
The  latter  prevents  the  boxes  or  covers  from  splitting.  The  best  nails 
are  French  wire  nails  for  the  sides  and  ends,  one  and  one-quarter 
inches  long,  and  for  tops  and  bottoms  one  inch  long. 

Labels. — I  cannot  finish  this  part  without  adding  some  words  about 
our  labels.  It  is  of  importance  that  o.ur  labels  and  colored  lithographs 
should  be  appropriate.  The  time  has  come  when  our  raisins  should 
stand  upon  their  own  merits,  and  should  be  designated  with  appro- 
priate names.  I  should  wish  to  see  only  California  names  used, 
California  layers  instead  of  London  layers,  California  scenes  instead 
of  foreign  scenes,  which  give  no  idea  of  our  conditions,  and  which 
do  not  help  to  advertise  our  State  and  its  resources.  Whatever  our 
labels  may  represent,  they  should  be  distinctly  Californian.  Another 
point  which  is  but  seldom  observed  on  these  labels  is  the  shape  and 
color  of  our  raisin  grapes.  The  latter  are  often  represented  on  the 
labels,  but  their  shape  is  seldom  observed.  Nowhere  have  we  seen  on 
them  a  true  Gordo  Blanco  or  a  true  Muscat  of  Alexandria  repre- 
sented, the  grapes  there  pictured  being  impossible  as  raisin  grapes, 
or  even  well-known  wine  or  table  grapes,  out  of  which  no  raisins  could 
be  made.  The  packer  has  a  right  to  protest  against  such  misrepre- 
sentations of  our  fair  grapes,  especially  as  the  lithographer  could  just 


168  THE  RAISIN   INDUSTRY. 

as  readily  and  just  as  cheaply  have  followed  the  originals.  A  beau- 
tiful label  is  well  worth  its  price.  As  a  work  of  art,  it  is  seldom 
thrown  away,  but  is  carefully  kept  and  made  to  adorn  the  walls  of 
many  a  humble  home,  in  which  the  name  and  fame  of  our  State  will 
soon  be  a  household  word.  Let  these  labels  go  out  by  the  million 
yearly  to  tell  of  our  climate  and  of  our  soil,  and  of  the  land  where  the 
luscious  raisins  are  produced,  with  the  same  care  as  apples  or  garden 
stulf  in  countries  less  favored  by  nature. 


STATISTICS  OF  IMPORTATION,  PRODUCTION 
AND  PRICES. 


Production  of  Raisins  in  California  from  1873  to  1889  : 


Twenty-pound  boxes. 

1873 6,000 

1874 9,000 

1875 11,000 

1876 19,000 

1877 32,000 

1878 48,000 

1879 65,000 

1880 75,ooo 

1881 90,000 


The  California  crop,  from  1885  to  1889,  was  divided  between  the 
various  raisin  districts  of  the  State  about  as  follows  : 


Twenty-pound  boxes. 

1882 115,000 

1883 140,000 

1884 175,000 

1885 500,000 

1886 700,000 

1887 800,OOO 

1888 963,000 

1889 1,OOO,OOO 


1885. 

1886. 

1887. 

1888. 

1889. 

Fresno            

IO7.OOO 

225,000 

^  CO,  OOO 

44O,OOO 

475  OOO 

Riverside  and  San  Bernardino.  . 
Orange  County  and  Los  AnO 
creles  County                    .  .  .  .  J 

129,000 
139,000 

195,000 
180,000 

190,000 

85,000 

270,000 
42,000 

265,000 
8,000 

Woodland  and  Davisville  

67  ooo 

7C  OOO 

125.  OOO 

115  ooo 

I2O  OOO 

San  Diejjo        «  

10,000 

25  OOO 

2O  OOO 

40.000 

75  OOO 

6,000 

8,000 

lOjOOO 

11,000 

15  OOO 

Kern  

A  OOO 

12,000 

15,000 

2O,OOO 

25,000 

25,OOO 

470,000 

723,000 

800,000 

943,000 

987,000 

Number  of  Acres  in  Raisin  Grapes  in  California  in  1890 : 

Fresno  district 30,000  acres. 

Balance  of  San  Joaquin  valley 10,000      " 

San  Bernardino  district 5, ooo      " 

San  Diego  and   El  Cajon 6,000 

Yolo  and  Solano 8,000      " 

Balance  of  the  State 7,000      " 

66,000      " 
This  includes  grapes  in  bearing,  as  well  as  vines  lately  set  out 


170  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

California  and  Malaga  Prices,  Importations ',  etc. ,  from  1871  to  1889: 

The  following  statistics  of  prices  of  California  and  Malaga  raisins  have 
been  mostly  compiled  from  various  sources,  such  as  the  Fresno  Ex- 
positor, the  San  Francisco  Journal  of  Commerce,  the  Fruit  Grower,  etc. 
These  statistics  and  notes  will  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  progress  made 
by  the  raisin  industry  in  this  State  since  1873,  the  year  when  our 
raisins  first  cut  any  conspicuous  figure  in  the  market  of  this  continent. 
The  first  struggle  of  the  raisin-producers  of  this  Coast  was  directed 
against  the  importers  of  Malaga  raisins,  and  against  the  prejudice  of 
our  own  consumers.  It  took  about  ten  years  to  supersede  the  Malaga 
product  by  our  own.  The  following  table  gives  the  importation  of 
Malaga  raisins  to  this  State  from  1871  to  1884  : 

Twenty-pound  boxes.  Twenty-pound  boxes. 

1871 16,534  1881 1,719 

1872 36,*53  *882 i, 218 

1873 27,692  1883 633 

1874 35,447  1884 1,437 

1875 22,228  1885 800 

1876 29,187  1886 — 

1877 !3>357         1887 — 

1878 14,824         1888 — 

1879 10,884 

1880 3,988 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  imports  began  to  fall  off  in  1875,  being 
that  year  more  than  13,000  boxes  short  of  the  preceding  year.  In 
1876  the  importations  struggled  back  to  29,187,  syil  being  more  than 
6,000  boxes  short  of  the  importations  of  1874;  and  then  the  battle  was 
practically  won,  for  in  the  succeeding  years  the  importations  dwindled 
away  until  in  1883  only  633  boxes  were  imported.  The  figures  from 
1886  to  date  are  not  obtainable,  but  are  so  insignificant  as  to  be  consid- 
ered unnecessary  to  record. 

7<?7j. —  In  1873  the  market  was  liberally  supplied  with  Malaga  rai- 
sins, which  brought  at  wholesale  the  following  prices:  Layers,  whole 
boxes,  $3.00  to  $3.75;  half  boxes,  $3.62^;  quarters,  $3.75;  eighths, 
$4.00  to  $4.25;  London  layers,  $4.50. 

1874. —  Coming  down  to  1874,  tne  Malaga  still  holds  the  fort,  layers 
bringing  $3.25  for  whole  boxes,  and  $3.12^  for  half  boxes,  with  the 
customary  advance  on  fractions.  In  all  this  time  the  California  raisin 
was  too  insignificant  for  notice,  and  was  not  quoted  by  commercial 
papers. 

7(5*75. —  On  January  14,  1875,  this  significant  comment  appears  in 
the  Journal  of  Commerce:  '  'A  decided  change  is  being  wrought  in  the 
markets  of  this  coast  respecting  the  use  of  Malaga  raisins,  figs,  Zante 
currants,  Hungarian  prunes,  almonds,  walnuts,  etc.  In  fact,  from  this 
time  forward  Pacific  Coast  supplies  of  bunch  raisins  and  dried  fruits 
generally  are  to  be  produced  here  in  large  quantities,  and  in  favorable 
seasons  we  will  doubtless  have  a  large  surplus  of  almonds  (hard,  soft 
and  paper  shells),  English  walnuts,  chestnuts,  hickory  nuts,  raisins,  figs, 
etc." 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  171 

On  November  4,  1875,  it  was  recorded  that  up  to  the  ist  of  Novem- 
ber there  had  been  received  6,000  boxes  of  California  raisins,  "the 
quality  generally  good, ' '  worth  from  eight  to  ten  cents  per  pound,  say 
$2.00  and  $2.25  per  box  of  twenty-two  pounds  net;  lyondon  layers, 
$3. 50  and  $3. 75. 

1876. —  In  January  of  1876  Malagas  were  quoted  at  $3.25  and  $3.50, 
California  raisins  bringing  ten  and  twelve  and  one-half  cents  per  pound. 
The  following  comment  was  made  at  that  time,  which  may  be  consid- 
ered as  another  mile-stone  in  the  progress  of  the  California  industry: 
1 '  Malaga  raisins  have  been  imported  to  very  much  less  extent  the 
present  than  last  season,  owing  to  the  large  products  of  California 
cured,  which  latter  have  amounted  to  upwards  of  30,000  boxes,  about 
one-half  of  which  have  been  of  prime  quality,  suitable  for  table  use,  a 
portion  being  poorly  cured  and  considerably  inferior  to  the  imported, 
but  have  sold  at  lower  rates  for  ordinary  cooking  purposes. ' ' 

The  California  raisin  was  now  fairly  on  its  feet,  so  to  speak,  and  was 
in  lively  competition  with  the  Malaga  dried  grape.  The  market  reports 
spoke  well  of  Blowers'  California  Muscatels  and  Briggs'  bunch  raisins. 
The  jobbers,  however,  were  loth  to  give  up  the  Malaga;  but  to  sell 
that  article  they  had  to  import  an  extra  choice  quality,  as  the  public 
was  beginning  to  show  a  marked  preference  for  the  home  product.  In 
proof  of  this  the  following  extract,  dated  November  9,  1876,  is  given: 
'  *  The  quality  of  the  Malaga  raisins  now  here  is  superior  to  any  ever 
before  imported,  and  have  a  preference  over  our  best  California  raisins. 
This,  however,  will  not  always  be  the  case,  as  experience  makes  per- 
fect, and  in  a  few  years  we  will  be  entirely  independent  of  the  Old 
World  for  all  sorts  of  dried  fruits." 

1877. —  In  November,  1877,  very  complimentary  notice  is  made  of 
Blowers'  layer  raisins  from  Woodland,  which  brought  $2.75  and  $3.00 
per  box.  Briggs' raisins  were  worth  $2.25  and  $2.70.  This  extract, 
dated  January  18,  1877,  *s  stiU  another  landmark  in  the  raisin  indus- 
try: "The  consumption  of  raisins  has  been  fully  up  to  the  average  of 
past  years,  yet  divided  between  Malaga  imports  and  our  own  Califor- 
nia production.  Of  the  latter,  upwards  of  20,000  boxes  have  been 
already  marketed;  and,  had  it  not  been  for  the  unusual  and  unexpected 
heavy  rainfall  in  October,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  our 
home  crop  of  bunch  and  layer  raisins  would  have  reached  50,000 
boxes  of  twenty  pounds  each.  Blowers'  Muscat  raisins  were  superior 
and  in  every  way  equal  to  the  imported.  Briggs,  of  Marysville,  also 
turned  out  several  thousand  boxes  of  bunch,  and  others  have  made  a 
creditable  beginning.  Enough  has  been  done  here  in  this  line  to  sat- 
isfy our  grape-growers  that  raisin-curing  is  to  be,  in  the  near  future,  a 
prominent  California  interest,  and,  to  do  it  successfully,  the  sun-drying 
process  is  infinitely  superior  to  that  of  machine-drying.  Sheds  must 
be  erected  and  prepared  in  time  to  protect  the  fruit  from  early  rain,  and 
then  the  working  process  is  sure  to  all  who  have  the  right  kind  of 
grapes.  Then  uniform  weight  in  twenty,  ten  and  five  pound  boxes,  all 
handsomely  put  up  in  fancy  papered  boxes,  and  California  then  will  be 
prepared  to  secure  all  the  raisin  trade  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  a  good  part  of  that  of  the  Eastern  States.  As  it  is,  those  of  our 


172  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

merchants  importing  Malaga  raisins  from  New  York  confine  themselves 
to  London  layers  and  others  of  the  best  and  choicest  quality,  leaving 
the  home  market  to  be  cared  for,  in  a  great  measure,  by  those  of  our 
own  production.  As  a  result,  raisins  have  ruled  low  all  the  winter, 
and  are  likely  to  do  so  for  a  long  time  to  come. ' ' 

1878. —  In  1878  several  carloads  of  California  raisins  were  sent  to 
Chicago,  New  York  and  Boston,  and  were  well  received  by  the  trade. 
In  October  of  that  year,  California  layers  were  bringing  $2.50  and 
$3.25.  Imports  had  fallen  away  more  than  forty  per  cent  from  the  fig- 
ures of  1874. 

1879. —  In  1879  the  ruling  prices  for  California  raisins,  in  lots  of  250 
boxes  and  upwards,  were:  Common  layers,  $2.00  for  wholes,  $2.25  for 
halves,  $2.50  for  quarters,  #3.00  for  eighths;  London  layers,  $2.25  to 
$2.50  for  wholes,  $2.50  to  $2.75  for  halves,  $2.75  to  $3.00  for  quarters, 
$3.25  to  $3.50  for  eighths. 

1880. —  In  October,  1880,  the  following  quotations  were  made: 
Briggs'  layers,  $2.00  and  $2.75  per  box.  California  raisins,  in  lots  of 
250  boxes  and  upwards,  common  layers,  $2.50  and  $2.25  per  box;  Lon- 
don layers,  $2.50  per  box. 

1881. —  In  November  of  1881,  Malaga  ruled  high  in  the  East,  and 
in  consequence  prices  were  generally  higher  here,  quotations  for  the 
California  article  running  $2.50  for  wholes,  $2.75  for  halves,  $3.00  for 
quarters,  and  $3.25  for  eighths,  in  lots  of  one  hundred  boxes.  London 
layers,  twenty-five  cents  per  box  more. 

1882. — In  1882  prices  ran  $2.37^  and  $2.75.  During  all  the  period 
just  reviewed,  the  duty  was  two  and  a  half  cents  per  pound  on  raisins; 
but  in  March,  1883,  the  duty  was  reduced  to  two  cents,  and  yet  impor- 
tations for  that  year  were  only  633  boxes, — a  rather  singular  fact.  The 
reduction  in  duty  does  not  seem  to  have  had  a  very  bad  effect  on  prices, 
because,  as  is  easily  evident  from  the  small  importation,  no  competition 
to  speak  of  was  encountered  in  the  local  market,  and,  as  in  that  year 
the  imports  at  New  York  from  Spain  were  many  thousands  of  boxes 
short,  Eastern  competition  was  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Prices  here 
ruled  through  the  year  at  an  average  of  from  seven  to  eight  cents  a 
pound,  anything  especially  choice  bringing  better  prices. 

1883. —  In  1883  California  made  a  big  stride  forward  in  packing  and 
curing,  and  fancy  raisins  were  put  up  in  layers  and  cartoons.  The 
Dehesa  brand  and  other  fancy  brands  made  their  appearance,  and  as 
high  as  one  dollar  was  paid  for  quarters  of  five  pounds  each,  and  T.  C. 
White's  and  Miss  Austin's  brands  became  famous. 

1884. —  In  1884,  the  year  following  that  in  which  the  duty  was 
reduced  to  two  cents,  the  following  prices  prevailed: 

In  January  the  following  quotations  are  recorded:  Malaga  layers, 
$3.50  for  wholes,  $5.00  for  halves,  and  $5.50  for  quarters  in  frames. 
Valencia  raisins,  fifteen  cents  per  pound.  Loose  Muscatels,  $1.60. 
London  layers,  $4.00.  Briggs,  wholes  $2.50, — usual  advance  of  twenty- 
five  cents  on  fractions.  Blowers,  wholes  $ ,  quarters  $3.50,  eighths 

$3-75-     Other  raisins,  $2.50  in  large  lots;  quarter  and  eighth  boxes 
twenty-five  cents  higher. 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  173 

In  August  the  following  were  the  quotations:  Malaga  layers,  $3.50 
for  wholes,  $4.00  for  halves,  and  $4.50  for  quarters  in  frames.  Valen- 
cias,  fifteen  cents  per  pound.  Loose  Muscatels,  $1.90.  London  layers, 
$3.00.  Briggs,  wholes  $1.40,  halves  $1.75,  quarters  $2.25,  eighths $2.75. 
Blowers,  wholes  $2.25,  halves  $2.50,  quarters  $2.75,  eighths  $3.00. 

In  October  the  following  quotations  are  to  be  found:  Common  layers, 
$1.00  to  $1.25  for  wholes,  $1.50  for  halves,  $1.75  for  quarters,  $2.25  for 
eighths.  London  layers,  $1.35  to  $1.50  for  wholes,  $1.95  for  halves, 
$2.00  for  quarters,  $2.50  for  eighths. 

In  November,  1884,  the  following  comment  is  made:  The  California 
raisin  pack  will  probably  be  100,000  boxes.  There  would  have  been 
much  more  but  for  the  October  rains,  that  prevented  proper  curing. 
The  crop  in  Europe  is  short,  too,  and  prices  are  much  higher  than  they 
were  a  year  ago.  It  is  said  that  15,000  boxes  have  been  sold  for  the 
East.  We  quote:  Malaga  layers,  $3.75  for  wholes,  $4.00  for  halves, 
and  $4.50  for  quarters  in  frames.  Valencia  raisins,  fifteen  cents  per 
pound.  Loose  Muscatels,  $1.90.  London  layers,  $4.00.  Briggs, 
wholes  $1.75,  halves  $2.00,  quarters  $2.35  to  $2.50.  Blowers,  wholes 
$2.00,  halves  $2.25,  quarters  $2.50,  eighths  $2.75.  California  layers, 
wholes  $1.50,  halves  $1.75,  quarters  $2.00. 

1883. —  In  1885  the  market  showed  a  gratifying  ability  to  absorb  at 
profitable  rates  a  good  article,  for  prices  ran:  California  common  layers, 
$1.75  for  wholes,  $2.00  for  halves,  $2.25  for  quarters.  Briggs,  wholes 
$2.00,  with  an  advance  of  twenty-five  cents  on  fractions.  Blowers, 
$2.25  for  wholes,  with  an  advance  of  twenty-five  cents  on  fractions. 

1886. —  In  1886  quotations  show  that  only  extra  choice  Malagas 
were  imported,  and  that,  too,  for  a  limited  trade.  Prices  were:  Malaga 
layers,  $4.00  for  wholes,  $4.25  and  $4.75  for  halves  and  quarters.  Va- 
lencia raisins,  fifteen  cents  per  pound.  London  layers,  $3.00.  Cali- 
fornia layers,  wholes  $1.75,  —usual  advance  of  twenty-five  cents  on 
fractions.  Briggs,  wholes  $2.00,  halves  $2.25,  etc.  Blowers,  wholes 
$2.25, — usual  advance  on  fractions. 

For  1886  the  market  is  reviewed  as  follows:  The  past  year  has  been 
the  greatest  for  California  dried  fruit  that  the  State  has  ever  seen. 
There  has  been  an  increase  in  every  item,  and  a  specially  heavy 
increase  in  the  matter  of  raisins,  the  production  of  which  has  increased 
so  fast  that  they  have  become  a  leading  article  of  merchandise.  Where 
we  were  large  importers  and  generous  consumers,  more  in  proportion 
to  our  size  than  any  one  else  in  the  world,  we  have  almost  totally 
ceased  importation  and  are  among  the  largest  producers  and  exporters 
in  the  world,  next  to  Spain  itself.  The  total  receipts  of  imported 
raisins  at  New  York  for  the  season  of  1886-87  were  as  follows:  911,816 
boxes  of  Valencias,  427,936  boxes  of  Malagas,  400  half  boxes  of  Ma- 
lagas, 88,657  boxes  of  Sultanas.  The  California  pack  is  this  year 
almost  doubled,  and  shows  great  improvement  in  quality  and  packing. 

1887. —  In  October,   1887,  prices  were  quoted  as  follows:    London 

layers,  per  box,  $2.00  to  $2.25.     Loose  Muscatels,  from  $1.50  to  $1.80. 

Riverside,  El  Cajon  and  Fresno  raisins  of  excellent  quality  are  now 

in  the  market,  and  Butler  and  Forsyth  raisins  in  Fresno  begin  to  rival 


174  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

the  very  best  imported  brands.     Many  large  packing-houses  are  estab- 
lished in  Fresno,  Riverside  and  El  Cajon. 

1888. — The  pack  reaches  in  California  850,000  boxes,  and  the  Fresno 
as  well  as  the  Riverside  raisins  are  very  large  and  choice.  Forsyth  and 
Butler  raisins  take  the  lead,  some  of  the  choicest  layers  bringing  as  high 
as  one  dollar  per  five-pound  quarter  box.  Only  112,000  boxes  of  Ma- 
laga raisins  are  imported  to  the  United  States. 

In  October,  1888,  the  following  prices  were  obtained  for  imported 
raisins  at  auction  sale  in  New  York:  645  boxes  best  London  Layers, 
$3.25  to  $3. 12*^;  348  Imperial  Cabinets,  $3.35  to  $3.20;  200  fine  De- 
hesa  Bunches,  $4.50  to  $3.75;  50  Imperial  Dehesa  Bunches,  $5.65;  104 
Dehesa  Bunches,  $4.05  to  $4.00;  100  Finest  Selected  Clusters,  $4.45  to 
$4.40;  50  Finest  Royal  Clusters,  $4.75;  3  Imperial  Excelsior  Dehesa 
I^oose  Muscatels,  $5.00;  140  Imperial  Loose  Muscatels,  $3.30  to  $2.15; 
i  Imperial  Excelsior  Dehesa  Clusters,  $5.50;  9  Imperial  Dehesa  Clus- 
ters, $5.12^  to  $5.00;  2  Dehesa  Dessert  Fruit,  $4.10;  1,194  Finest  Va- 
lencia Layers,  8^6  to  8  cents;  899  Finest  Valencia  Raisins,  7  to  6^ 
cents;  150  half  boxes  Finest  Valencia  Layers,  8^3  to  8  cents;  246 
boxes  Finest  Sultanas,  8^  to  8  cents. 

At  the  same  time  California  layers  were  quoted  at  from  $1.80  to 
$2.25  for  medium  grades,  while  for  Dehesa  and  Imperial  quarter  boxes 
from  eighty  cents  to  one  dollar  were  realized.  Raisins  in  sweatboxes 
were  bought  by  packers  at  five  cents  per  pound,  prices  not  rated  ac- 
cording to  quality. 

1889. — The  crop  of  1889  was  not  as  large  as  at  first  calculated,  on 
account  of  loss  through  unusual  and  heavy  rains.  It  was  especially 
the  second  crop  which  suffered.  The  first  crop  was  good,  and  brought 
good  prices,  average  layers  bringing  from  $1.75  to  $2.25  per  box  of 
twenty  pounds.  Great  improvement  is  made  in  packing  and  labels, 
and  our  average  raisins  are  better  than  the  average  imported  Malagas. 
Our  choicest  layers,  however,  do  not  yet  equal  in  size,  curing  and 
packing  the  choicest  Malagas,  and  no  efforts  have  been  made  to  com- 
pete with  them.  There  are  at  least  four  higher  grades  packed  in 
Malaga  which  we  do  not  produce  here.  During  last  season  raisins  in 
sweatboxes  have  ruled  higher  than  before,  and  have  been  bought  by 
packers  at  from  three  to  seven  cents. 

1890  (to  July). — The  crop  promises  to  be  as  large  as  last  year.  It  is 
greatly  in  demand,  and  representatives  of  Eastern  and  California  dealers 
have  already  bought  up  the  most  of  the  coming  crop  at  prices  averaging 
one-half  a  cent  more  per  pound  than  last  year. 

From  the  above  statistics  we  learn  that  through  the  production  of 
raisins  in  California  the  price  of  sun-dried  raisins  to  the  consumer  on 
this  coast  has  been  lowered  from  $3.00,  $3.75,  $4.00  and  $4.50  in  1873 
to  $2.00  and  $2.50  in  1890.  The  importation  of  Malaga  raisins  in  the 
United  States  has  greatly  diminished,  while  that  of  Valencia  or  "  dipped  " 
raisins  has  increased.  In  1873,  the  United  States  imported  35,271,312 
pounds  of  raisins,  for  which  it  paid  $2,292,948,  while  in  1888  our  im- 
portation was  40,340,117  pounds,  or  about  five  million  pounds  more, 
for  which  we  paid  $2,098,503,  or  about  $200,000  less. 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 


175 


Exports  of  Valencia  Raisins  from  1850  to  1889,  according1  to  English 
estimates  : 


YEAR. 

England. 

America. 

Other  Places. 

Total  Tons. 

1850.. 

Q,42l 

165 

0.588 

1851  . 

8,4.QI 

285 

787 

9.  561 

1852  
1851 

8,844 
7  881 

320 

QQ 

7O 

9,164 
8  O52 

1854  . 

/  >w»»0! 

7,2O6 

yy 
206 

5O 

7,552 

1855  . 

7.4.64, 

7^6 

85 

8,285 

1856 

8  QOQ 

/  o^ 

12 

8  Q2I 

1857 

">  y^y 

9/185 

7  QOO 

1858  . 

'T-'-'O 

11  542 

654. 

182 

14.,  178 

1850 

9546 

161 

III 

0.822 

i36o         

>OT-^ 
7  257 

2  8ll 

4-54. 

IO.  54.2 

1861  

/  J^D/ 
8.O72 

6l 

14-1 

8,278 

1862     

7  564. 

218 

7,QOO 

1861 

/  >O^T- 

12  2QO 

125 

IOO 

12.51  5 

1864           

8  655 

**  u 

^8 

182 

8  875 

1865  . 

w>^OD 

o  861 

O" 
162 

12 

"j^/O 
IO.217 

1866       

yjv^o 

12  715 

ow* 

4.O1 

4.71 

I1.6ll 

1867  . 

•*l  /OO 

I2.7OI 

T-^O 

668 

177 

11,546 

1868  

14.  2Q^ 

3.OQ5 

I8,l82 

1869  

*-LT'>*'yo 
8  4.14. 

I  857 

25 

10,116 

1870         

"JT-OT- 

10  060 

•••J^O/ 
2  2IO 

no 

12.180 

1871   . 

12   ^78 

C.2IO 

625 

18,411 

1872  

jc  677 

4.  O88 

515 

20,  100 

1871 

•LO>V//  / 

TO  706 

2  Q6o 

7IO 

14,466 

1874.  . 

17.724. 

c.Ci-J 

41Q 

10,676 

1875;  . 

12  ^68 

6.C.QO 

5Q5 

10,751 

1876  

m,272 

^,816 

676 

19,764 

1877 

1878 

l87Q    . 

TC   211 

9525 

1,24.4 

26,IOO 

1880   

rv»*O* 

I3,O26 

JO^O 
8.Q77 

892 

22,895 

1881  

17.  ^O7 

10,  160 

060 

28,625 

1882  

•  /  >ov/ 
18  121 

21.  5Q1 

1,712 

41  •  146 

1881  . 

IQ  644. 

l6  722 

-2,081 

40,  140 

1884.  . 

*y^vr<|«|i 

IO  2IO 

9  686 

4.,  280 

24,185 

1885  . 

TO  2^0 

9-2Q7 

1.5Q6 

21,241 

1886  

1C     IQJ. 

>o;'/ 
15.687 

l6,II3 

16,  004 

1887  . 

^O'  A  7T- 

1  6  648 

18  811 

1,4-70 

18,958 

1888  

I  5   524. 

12  24.5 

4..655 

12,424 

1880  . 

*3»Q**r 

12  OOO 

**t*«r^ 

14.  64.5 

1.724. 

27,160 

iT-»'-'T-O 

176  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

Exports  of  Malaga  Raisins  from  1864.  to  1889: 


YEAR. 

u.  s. 

British 
Colon's 

Great 
Britain. 

France. 

North 
Europe. 

South 
Am. 

Sundries 

Total 
Boxes. 

Total 
Tons. 

1861  . 

870  7Q4 

4S  Qo6 

2S8  4S8 

1  77  77O 

CQ  6  SO 

1OQ  741 

209  ooo 

200  ooo 

13  2OO 

1865  
1866 

879.794 
QO7  70S 

75,708 

72  208 

269,072 
220  756 

171,743 
178  862 

64,319 

62  076 

96,658 
IIS  70S 

255,000 
191  ooo 

,800,000 

7  SO  OOO 

19,800 

IQ  2SO 

1867 

vwi.v-'o 

QDO  72.1 

06  I  24 

166  777 

I2Q  7QI 

58  222 

LL  3-J~3 

116  762 

I  7S  OOO 

670  ooo 

1  8  77O 

1868 

I  OS  7  726 

I2S  4O7 

222  426 

*^f»O»* 

167  706 

64  262 

103  082 

21  S  OOO 

950  ooo 

22  4  SO 

1869 

7O7  721 

eft  26^ 

j7c  602 

117  6l2 

82  472 

67  674 

80  8OO 

350  ooo 

14  8  SO 

1870 

771  Q77 

1  2O  O7Q 

216  015 

QO  IQ7 

en  687 

117  7SS 

270  ooo 

2  2OO  OOO 

24  2OO 

1871 

Id7  677 

08  817 

183  916 

l6l  127 

60  8OO 

87  242 

274  OOO 

2  2OO  OOO 

24  2OO 

1872 

•?2S  70S 

18?.  8OO 

230  046 

72  788 

IIQ  O42 

i  920  ooo 

21  1  2O 

1877.... 

368  822 

AC  4QC 

241,  72  «> 

1  06  27Q 

QQ  424 

I4O,OOO 

2,500  ooo 

2'7,  SOO 

1874.  

720  ooo 

47  400 

240  ooo 

2OO  OOO 

OQ  SOO 

2,  160  ooo 

23  760 

1875  
1876  

976,000 

721  OOO 

42,000 
52  ooo 

271,000 
7.S7  OOO 

203,000 

276  ooo 

Q8,OOO 

115  ooo 

- 

98,000 
9I.OOO 

1,670,000 

2  252  OOO 

18,370 
24  772 

1877.... 

250  ooo 

56  6oO 

250  ooo 

300  ooo 

IOO  OOO 

2  2OO  OOO 

24  2<X> 

1878!::." 

182088 

c8  242 

IQ4  471 

770  767 

99  661 

Q842Q 

211  OOO 

2  180  ooo 

27  080 

1870.. 

14.6  228 

7(5  SQ8 

277  6SO 

768  420 

107888 

63688 

170  ooo 

2  125  OOO 

27  772 

1880 

115  101 

46  717 

174  126 

207  412 

IO8  222 

UJ>W« 
7S  4S6 

107  OOO 

2  OIS  OOO 

22  165 

1881 

O47  727 

7J  77Q 

141  4IS 

2SI  782 

101  828 

81  106 

147  ooo 

I  800  ooo 

IQ  8oO 

1882  

QO7,  S7I 

7,8,431 

176,  749 

277,  253 

130,646 

98,007 

178,000 

I,2OO,OOO 

I3,2OO 

1883  

1884.... 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

1885  

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

1886  

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

1887  

__ 

_ 

_ 

_ 

85O,OOO 

9,  35P 

1888.. 

85O,OOO 

8.2SO 

1889  

I2O,OCO 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

750,000 

First  Cost  of  Crop  of  Valencia  Raisins >  according  to  the  f '  California 
Fruit  Grower:" 

1884,  from  $4.00  to  $6.00  per  hundred  pounds. 

1885,  "       5.00  to    6.00   " 

1886,  "       3.00  to     5.00   " 

1887,  ....     4.00 " 

1888,  from     2.00  to    4.00    "          "  " 

1889,  ....     3-50 " 

Production  and  Distribution  of  Smyrna  Raisins  from  184.4.  to  1884., 
according  to  U.  S.  Consular  Reports : 

1844 8,000  tons.  1879 75,ooo  tons. 

1868 19,000     "  1881 49,000 

1871 48,000      "  1884 95,ooo     " 

1872 31,000      " 

According  to  English  estimates,  the  raisin  crop   of  Smyrna  only 
reached  27,000  tons  in  1876,  and  was  divided  as  follows  : 

Red  Raisins. — Chesme 5, 100  tons. 

Vourla 5,ooo     " 

Yerly 2,800     " 

Carabourna 1,600     ' 


14,500  tons. 


THE     RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 


177 


Sultanas. — Chesme 7,400  tons. 

Vourla 3,  ioo     '  * 

Yerly 1,150     " 

Carabourna 800     " 

12,450  tons. 

26,950  tons. 
This  crop  was  distributed  as  follows: 

Red  Raisins. —  England 2,699  tons. 

North  of  Europe 6,488     " 

Trieste 2,260     " 

Russia  and  Turkey 2,995     " 

14,442  tons. 

Sultanas. — England 7,945  tons. 

North  of  Europe 1,525     " 

Trieste 2,820     " 

Russia,  etc 285     " 

12,575  tons. 

27,017  tons. 
The  World's  Raisin  Production  in  1889  : 

Greece 125,000  tons. 

Smyrna 120,000  " 

Valencia 28,000  " 

Lipari,  Calabria  and  Pantellaria. .   15,000  " 

California 10,000  " 

Malaga 8,000  " 

Scattered 5,000  " 

Chile 1,000  " 

312,000  tons. 

The  above  does  not  include  dried  wine  grapes  from  Italy,  California 
and  Algiers,  nor  any  raisins  made  in  Australia  (Victoria). 

Statement  Showing  the  Quantity  and  Value  of  Currants,  Figs  and 
Raisins  Imported  and  Entered  for  Consumption  in  the  United  States 
from  1873  to  1878  : 


YEAR  ENDING 
JUNE  30. 


RAISINS. 


QUANTITY.         VALUE 


CURRANTS, 
ZANTE  AND  ALL  OTHER. 


QUANTITY.        VALUE. 


FIGS. 


QUANTITY.   VALUE. 


1873- 
1874 
1875- 
1876. 

1877- 
1878. 


Pounds. 
35,271,312 
36,419,922 
30,501,316 
32,221,065 
32,419,637 
32,931,736 


Dollars. 
2,292,948  83 
2,544,605  95 
2,443,155  50 
2,425,277  14 
2,109,333  60 
1,904,866  13 


Pounds. 
14,141,797 

19,319,191 
19,334,458 
20,911,061 
17,152,664 
17,941,352 


Dollars. 
566,386  49 
752,694  oo 
771,384  56 
856,425  62 
749.488  oo 
776,827  oo 


Pounds. 

7,995,035 
5,630,292 
4,659,860 

5,056,779 
5,889,011 

3,873,884 


Dollars. 
506,205  45 
391,300  16 
357,823  99 
361,835  53 

398,982  22 

262,428  15 


178 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 


Statement  Showing  the  Quantity  and  Value  of  Currants,  Figs  and 
Raisins  Imported  and  Entered  for  Consumption  in  the  United  States, 
with  Rates  of  Duty,  etc.,  from  1879  to  1888  : 

RAISIN§. 


YEAR.  ENDING  JUNE  30. 

QUANTITY. 

VALUE. 

Rate 
of 
Duty. 

AMOUNT  OP 
DUTY 
COLLECTED. 

Additional 
and 
Discrim- 
inating 
Duty. 

l8?O  .  . 

Pounds. 
78  521,515 

Dollars. 
1,041,041   14 

Per  Ib. 
2^C 

Dollars. 
o6l  088  42 

Dollars. 
Q2    ^1 

1880  

10,  542,025 

2,274,761  oo 

2j4c. 

088  571   IO 

?*   O* 
48  41 

1881  

1Q,6«>4,  7  5  5 

2,711,771  74 

2>^C. 

QQI.l68  04 

80   5O 

1882           .        .     . 

At.  77Q  867 

1  260  OH  74 

2^C 

I  OQ4  4o6  71 

1883 

ci  487  380 

3.4Q5.5QQ  45 

•*/2V" 

2lAc. 

I  287  l84  77 

2O  7O 

1884 

c6  676,658 

I,541,oi6  15 

2CtS. 

I.  111.  511   15 

52   7O 

x885  .  .             

•10,778,605 

2,728,847  46 

2CtS. 

705  571  QO 

247   15 

1886  

77,000,  106 

2,782,500  76 

2CtS. 

750,086   12 

5O  OO 

40,660,603 

2,297,469  30 

2CtS. 

8l3,2I2  06 

14  OO 

1888 

4O  14O  117 

2.008  501  oo 

2CtS. 

806  8O2    14 

80  10 

CURRANTS,  ZANTE  OR  OTHER. 


YEAR  ENDING  JUNK  30. 

QUANTITY. 

VALUE. 

Rate 
of 
Duty. 

AMOUNT  OF 
DUTY 
COLLECTED. 

Additional 
and 
Discrim- 
inating 
Duty. 

Pounds. 
17,405,147 

Dollars. 
520,831  07 

Per  Ib. 
I  Ct. 

Dollars. 
m,O51  47 

Dollars. 

18,007,402 

600,603  4° 

I  Ct. 

l8o,O74  Q2 

1881  

21,631,512 

845,773  oo 

I  Ct. 

2l6,H5    12 

1882  

32,592,231 

1,388,886  oo 

Ct. 

125,022    11 

1881 

11.  171.  171 

1.  247.  5O4  OO 

Ct 

III  711   71 

1884 

12,741,712 

I.220,  575   l6 

Ct. 

127  417   12 

1885 

25.514,507 

721,415  oo 

Ct. 

255,145  O7 

1886  

22,623,171 

744,784  oo 

Ct. 

226,231   71 

117  80 

1887  .             

2Q,IO6,1Q1 

1,062,326  oo 

Ct. 

201,061  Ql 

1888  

10,616,424 

1,176,532  76 

Ct. 

106,164  24 

FIGS. 


YEAR  ENDING  JUNB  30. 

QUANTITY. 

VALUE. 

Rate 
of 
Duty. 

AMOUNT  OP 
DUTY 
COLLECTED. 

Additional 
and 
Discrim- 
inating 
Duty. 

Pounds. 
1  l6Q,475 

Dollars. 
247.O75  06 

Per  Ib. 
2*Ac. 

Dollars. 
84,216  80 

Dollars. 

!88o             

6  266,411 

440,507  oo 

2lAc. 

156,660  14 

!88i   

1,420,427 

170,182  55 

2>£C. 

85,510  72 

1882  

8,874,186 

678,341  87 

2>£C. 

221,854  70 

1881 

5145.124 

480,108  18 

2lAc. 

I11.6ll  OQ 

1884  

7,84O,6l4 

504,532  02 

2CtS. 

156,812  68 

_ 

T8S5             

7%774,4Q2 

516,081  61 

2CtS. 

155,480  84 

6  50 

1886       

6,988,642 

400,085  80 

2CtS. 

IIQ  772  84 

1887 

8,752,898 

488,632  oo 

2CtS. 

175,057  96 

137  oo 

1888  

0,065,584 

495,541  50 

2CtS. 

199,311  68 

THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  179 

Statement  of  Consumption  of  Currants  and  Raisins  per  Head  of  Total 
Population  in  1884. : 

United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain.  4.38  pounds. 
United  States  of  North  America. .    1.70       " 

Prices  Ruling  in  the  California  Raisin  Districts: 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  give  here  a  regular  prospective  estimate  of  the 
cost  of  a  raisin  vineyard  and  the  profits  to  be  derived  therefrom.  Such 
an  estimate,  applicable  to  every  case,  cannot  be  made  out ;  about  it  not 
two  raisin-growers  with  equal  experience  would  agree.  Below  I  simply 
give  isolated  statistics  of  costs  of  the  various  operations  necessary  in 
the  raisin  industry.  Each  one  can  figure  for  himself,  and  my  advice  is 
to  add  liberally  to  the  calculated  expenses,  if  disappointment  would  be 
avoided. 

As  to  the  profits  of  a  raisin  vineyard,  the  reader  will  by  this  time 
understand  how  it  might  vary,  how  it  must  depend  upon  nice  little  cir- 
cumstances, never  foreseen  and  only  to  be  taken  advantage  of  or  coun- 
teracted by  the  experienced  grower.  The  high  statements  which  have 
been  given  in  these  pages  as  samples  of  how  much  might  be  gained 
from  an  acre  of  raisin-vines  can  never  be  counted  on  as  regular.  From 
fifty  to  several  hundred  dollars  per  acre  may  be  obtained  as  net  profit 
by  care,  skill  and  favorable  circumstances,  but  an  average  of  seventy- 
five  dollars  per  acre  can  be  considered  a  conservative  sum,  whicETtEe 
owner  of  a  good  irrigated  vineyard  may  calculate  on  as  a  safe  net  profit. 
Many  do  not  reach  even  that.  But,  even  with  that  profit  per  acre,  how 
many  horticultural  industries  can  be  counted  on  to  produce  better 
results  ?  Very  few,  if  any.  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  desire  figures 
to  guide  them,  the  following  statistics  are  offered.  They  have  been 
carefully  compiled  in  company  with  T.  C.  White,  one  of  the  most 
prominent  raisin-growers  the  State  has  ever  had.  These  statistics  refer 
especially  to  the  Fresno  district,  but  they  will  be  found  to  differ  but 
little  from  those  elsewhere  in  this  State. 

Land  suitable  to  raisins  can  be  had  at  from  fifty  to  two  hundred  dol- 
lars per  acre.  No  one  not  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  require- 
ments of  raisin  land  should  attempt  to  rely  on  his  own  judgment  alone 
in  making  a  selection. 

Vines,  already  rooted,  at  from  ten  to  twenty  dollars  per  thousand 
vines.  An  average  would  be  fifteen  dollars.  The  cost  of  rooting  vines 
is  from  one  dollar  to  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  thousand,  according 
to  locality  and  circumstances. 

Cuttings,  from  two  to  three  dollars  per  thousand,  more  or  less,  acord- 
ing  to  size  and  quality. 

Planting  rooted  vines,  one  cent  per  vine.  Planting  cuttings,  half  a 
cent  per  cutting. 

Plowing  yearly,  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  acre. 

Harrowing,  fifty  cents  per  acre. 

Leveling  land  for  irrigation,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  land.  Lev- 
eling the  land  in  from  one-half  to  three-quarter  acre  checks,  including 
small  ditches,  etc. ,  can  be  done  for  from  ten  to  fifteen  dollars  per  acre,  if 


180  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

the  land  is  fair.  Rougher  land  will  cost  twenty-five  dollars  or  thereabouts, 
and  if  the  land  is  rolling  and  contains  hardpan  the  expense  may  reach 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  dollars  per  acre.  The  more  ' '  naturally ' '  level 
the  land  is  the  better  suited  it  is  to  raisin-vines  under  irrigation. 

Irrigation  and  cultivation,  until  the  vines  come  into  bearing,  includ- 
ing suckering  and  pruning,  all  in  large  tracts  of  from  forty  to  one 
hundred  acres,  ten  dollars  per  acre.  If  in  smaller  tracts  the  expense 
will  be  larger. 

Pruning  when  the  vines  are  in  bearing,  from  two  to  three  dollars  per 
acre. 

Sulphuring  twice,  two  dollars  per  acre.  Sulphur  costs  from  two  to 
three  cents  per  pound.  It  takes  about  one  ton  to  twenty-five  acres  and 
one  man  can  sulphur  from  five  to  six  acres  a  day. 

Topping,  about  fifty  cents  per  acre. 

Trays,  twenty-four  by  thirty-six  inches,  cost  ten  cents  in  shooks, 
nailing  one  cent,  nails  one  cent,  total  about  twelve  cents  per  tray. 

Sweatboxes,  fifty  cents  apiece  when  ready. 

Packing-boxes:  Wholes  of  twenty  pounds,  in  shooks,  six  cents, 
nailing  and  nails  two  cents,  total  eight  cents  each.  Halves  of  ten 
pounds,  in  shooks,  four  cents,  nailing  and  nails  one  and  one-half  cents, 
total  five  and  one-half  cents.  Quarter  boxes  of  five  pounds,  in  shooks, 
three  and  one-half  cents,  nailing  and  nails  one  and  one-half  cents,  total 
five  cents  each. 

Twenty  pounds  of  layer  raisins  will  contain  about  one-half  pound 
of  stems. 

Cost  of  curing  cannot  be  calculated.  It  depends  upon  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  done. 

Picking:  One  man  can  pick  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  trays  of  twenty 
pounds  each  a  day,  at  a  cost  of  say  from  two  to  three  cents  per  tray,  or 
about  a  half  a  ton  of  grapes  a  day,  equal  to  a  cost  per  ton  of  two  dol- 
lars and  fifty  cents.  This  places  the  grapes  on  the  trays,  but  does  not 
.,  assort  them.  By  assorting  the  grapes  when  picking,  the  cost  is 
increased,  but  better  raisins  and  more  good  raisins  are  obtained. 

Turning:     Two  men  can  turn  twenty  acres  of  grapes  a  day. 

Packing  London  payers:  One  man  can  pack  "carefully"  ten 
wholes  or  forty  trays  (of  five  pounds  each)  per  day.  Cost  about  twelve 
and  a  half,  cents  per  box. 

Packing  Dehesas  :  One  man  can  pack  ten  quarters  of  five  pounds 
each  a  day.  Cost  twelve  and  one-half  cents  per  quarter  box.  This 
includes  facing. 

Packing  Loose  :     One  man  can  pack  one  hundred  boxes  per  day. 

Facing-plate  (T.  C.  White's):  Large  plate,  size  nine  by  eighteen 
inches,  five  dollars  per  plate.  Cartoon  plate,  size  five  by  ten  inches,  two 
dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  plate. 

Manilla  paper  for  sweatboxes,  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  per  ream 
at  fifteen  dollars  per  ream,  size  thirty-six  by  forty-eight.  The  sheets 
to  be  cut  in  two  to  fit  the  boxes. 

Stemming  :  Steam  stemmers  can  separate  and  assort  fifty  tons  a  day. 
Hand  stemmers  run  by  two  men  can  separate  about  five  tons  per  day. 

Papers  for  boxes  cost,  according  to  quality,  three  cents  per  box,  more 
or  less. 


THROUGH  THE  CALIFORNIA  RAISIN  DISTRICTS. 

THROUGH   SAN  JOAQUIN   VAIXEY  TO   FRESNO. 

We  are  on  our  way  up  the  valley.  The  train  left  San  Francisco 
in  the  morning.  We  have  crossed  the  bay  and  rounded  the  Contra 
Costa  Mountains,  and  Mount  Diablo,  with  its  majestic  twin  peaks, 
lies  already  behind  us.  We  have  just  crossed  the  San  Joaquin 
river  not  far  from  its  mouth;  the  west  side  of  the  valley  is  on  our 
right;  on  the  left  looms  up  the  Sierra  Nevada,  far  away  it  is  true,  but 
grand  and  imposing,  gradually  decreasing,  as  it  were,  towards  the 
south,  finally  to  disappear  among  the  clouds  at  the  farther  end  of  the 
valley.  It  is  in  the  middle  of  August;  the  day  is  warm,  but  there  has 
been  a  shower  in  the  mountains,  as  is  usual  at  this  season  of  the  year, 
a  sprinkling  of  rain  has  purified  the  atmosphere  in  the  foothills, 
which  stand  out  clear  and  bright,  a  contrast  to  the  dusty  road  in  the 
center  of  the  valley,  over  which  the  smoking  train  carries  us  at  a 
rapid  speed.  On  both  sides  of  us  stretch  apparently  endless  plains, 
thirty  miles  wide, — to  the  Coast  Range  on  one  side,  to  the  Sierra 
Nevada  on  the  other, — plains  dry  and  yellow,  parched  in  the  brilliant 
sun,  shaded  by  no  clouds,  but  cooled  by  a  steady  breeze  from  the 
northwest  following  us  up  the  valley.  Up,  we  say,  but  it  is  hardly 
any  more  up  than  down,  the  ascent  being  about  one  foot  to  the  mile ;  it 
is  rather  a  journey  over  one  of  the  most  level  plains  on  the  continent,  but 
still  the  popular  usage  insists  upon  saying  "  up  the  valley.' '  Acres  and 
acres  of  already  harvested  grainfields  are  seen  on  both  sides,  crossed 
by  roads  at  right  angles;  here  and  there  are  stacks  of  grain  which 
have  not  yet  been  threshed,  or  heaps  of  straw,  where  the  threshing 
engine  has  done  its  work;  on  almost  every  section  of  land  we  see  a 
farmhouse  and  barn,  a  few  gum-trees  or  cottonwoods,  and  many  a 
windmill  and  elevated  tank  informs  us  where  the  farmer  gets  his  water 
for  his  house  and  his  scanty  trees.  All  this  we  see  under  a  blazing  sun 
and  a  quivering  air. 

This  is  the  great  San  Joaquin  valley,  the  fertile  center  of  California. 
Of  the  much  spoken  of  irrigation  of  California,  we  see  almost  nothing; 
the  land  is  dry  and  thirsty,  the  soil  is  loose,  and  the  engine  forces  the 
dust  in  a  cloud  before  us.  Nothing  green  is  seen  anywhere  except  a 
few  scattered  trees  far,  far  apart.  Here  and  there  we  pass  a  little 
town  with  wooden  houses  and  dusty  streets,  with  wooden  churches 
whose  spires  do  not  pierce  the  sky.  We  cross  many  streams,  several  of 
which  are  dry,  or  have  sluggish  waters,  while  some  wind  their  way 
down  the  valley  between  banks  covered  with  willows  and  cotton- 
woods.  Yet  there  is  something  grand  in  this  immense  stretch  of 
open,  level  country,  with  its  frame  of  snowy  mountains,  with  its  fer-j, 
tile  fields  waiting  for  the  winter's  rain  or  irrigating  ditch  to  produce 
abundantly  of  almost  anything  that  can  be  grown  in  any  temperate 


182  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

country  in  the  world.  The  numerous  grain  stacks  speak  of  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil  and  of  abundant  harvests,  while  the  vegetation  along 
the  rivers  indicates  that  water  is  all  that  is  needed  to  make  this  large 
valley  like  a  fruitful  garden. 

We  have  passed  Lathrop  and  Modesto  and  numerous  smaller  stations 
between;  the  picture  is  everywhere  the  same.  At  Atwater  we  met  the 
first  signs  of  irrigation,  and  saw  young  vineyards  and  orchards  on 
either  side,  and  as  we  approach  Merced  we  pass  large  irrigating  ditches 
flowing  with  water,  and  in  the  distance  many  houses  and  farms.  The 
country  is  getting  greener,  and  the  deep  color  of  the  soil  is  a  sign  that 
it  is  rich  and  fertile.  At  Merced  there  is  a  Yosemite  air.  The  large 
El  Capitan  Hotel  stands  out  like  a  landmark,  and  the  garden  with  its 
flowers  and  shade  trees,  and  the  marble  fountain  with  its  rippling 
waters,  speak  loudly  of  beauty  and  refinement. 

Close  to  Merced  are  situated  some  of  the  new  promising  colonies 
which  are  making  raisin-growing  one  of  their  specialties,  and  in  what- 
ever direction  we  look  we  see  signs  of  such  new  enterprises,  all  young, 
of  course,  as  irrigation  has  only  lately  been  brought  in  here,  where  no 
dense  settlements  could  exist  without  it.  Much  of  the  land  is  yet  held 
in  very  large  tracts,  but  they  are  being  rapidly  subdivided  and  sold  out 
to  actual  settlers  as  fast  as  there  is  any  demand  for  them.  To  our  right 
lies  a  splendid  body  of  perfectly  level  land  occupied  by  the  Yosemite 
Colony  with  many  settlers  already  on  the  land,  whose  new  and  cosy 
cottages  mark  their  future  homes. 

In  the  distance,  on  the  slope  of  the  low  hills,  stand  out  prominently 
a  number  of  houses,  some  of  them  quite  pretentious,  white  and  gleam- 
ing in  their  new  dress.  This  is  the  Rotterdam  Colony,  a  settlement  of 
Hollanders  who  have  only  lately  arrived  here.  There  is  not  a  colony 
anywhere  which  promises  to  be  more  interesting,  and  which  is  likely 
to  prove  a  greater  success.  The  Dutch  as  a  people  had  succeeded  with 
colonization  long  before  any  other  nation  began  a  similar  work,  and, 
as  immigrants  to  this  State,  they  are  most  desirable.  Industrious, 
saving,  intelligent  and  persevering,  with  good  land,  plenty  of  water  at 
all  times  of  the  year,  and  with  a  good  location  which  insures  health 
and  comfort,  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  succeed.  The 
colony  is  most  beautifully  situated  on  high  sloping  ground, — a  veritable 
mesa  land  overlooking  the  vast  Merced  plains,  and  only  four  or  five 
miles  distant  from  the  city.  These  Hollander  colonists  are  the  very 
best  kind  of  settlers  the  State  can  get, — not  the  ignorant  peasantry  of 
Europe,  but  intelligent  and  well-educated  people,  which  any  commu- 
nity can  be  proud  of.  There  is  great  activity  in  the  colony  just  now. 
Thousands  of  acres  are  covered  with  magnificent  grain,  which,  without 
any  more  rain,  would  give  a  profit  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  dol- 
lars per  acre,  and  thus  materially  help  to  pay  for  the  land.  A  hundred 
or  more  horses  and  mules  with  their  drivers  are  plowing  and  harrowing 
the  soil ;  and  such  a  plowing  is  not  often  seen  anywhere.  The  plows 
are  set  about  a  feet  deep,  and  the  work  is  done  by  the  canal  company 
just  to  help  the  settlers  along  and  give  them  a  good  start.  What  more 
can  they  expect?  Good  treatment  is  in  Merced  dealt  out  to  everybody, 
— a  good  policy  which  should  be  followed  in  every  new  colony  in  the 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  183 

land.  We  stop  at  the  newly-built  house  of  Mr.  Canne,  a  gentleman  of 
middle  age  with  a  large  family,  and  hearty  and  pleasing,  as  is  so  char- 
acteristic of  the  Dutch.  His  house  is  large,  very  comfortable  and  airy, 
with  large  verandas  overlooking  the  country  far  and  wide.  Inside 
everything  is  cosy  and  neat,  with  lots  of  mementoes  from  quaint  old 
Holland,  with  colored  china  on  the  walls  and  odd  tables  and  odder 
bric-a-brac,  family  heirlooms  from  generations  back.  The  old  grand- 
ma, with  her  eighty-one  years,  has  come  along  with  the  younger  folks, 
happy  as  they,  and,  as  they,  meeting  bravely  and  with  confidence  new 
times  and  experiences  in  the  new  country  which  they  have  chosen  as 
their  home.  Our  wishes  for  good  luck  are  not  needed ;  it  is  sure  to 
come  when  such  people  are  settled  upon  such  land,  and  when  every- 
body enjoys  everybody  else's  good- will.  The  land  which  is  now  being 
broken  is  to  be  planted  to  olives,  almonds,  oranges,  peaches  and  vines, 
— a  very  good  selection  indeed,  and  one  which  cannot  fail  to  prove 
profitable.  The  deep  red  soil  on  the  mesa  will  grow  almost  anything, 
and  with  proper  care  and  management  this  colony  must  in  the  near 
future  become  one  of  the  most  attractive  and  prosperous  in  the  State. 

The  Rotterdam  Colony  is  bounded  on  one  side  by  the  now  famous 
and  often  described  Crocker  and  Huffman  reservoir.  Those  who 
believe  that  a  reservoir  in  the  foothills  is  not  the  proper  thing  should 
come  and  take  a  look  at  this  one,  and  be  convinced  that  it  is.  The 
location  is  a  most  favorable  one,  being  ninety  feet  above  the  town  of 
Merced,  and  elevated  sufficiently  to  irrigate  the  whole  of  the  level 
surrounding  district,  containing  two  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  acres. 
The  water  covers  now  about  six  hundred  and  forty  acres  which  were 
formerly  a  real  and  natural  valley,  across  the  mouth  of  which  the  dam 
checking  the  water  was  thrown.  The  average  depth  of  water  is  about 
thirty  feet,  while  in  some  places  it  is  fifty  odd  feet  deep.  The  statistics 
of  this  reservoir  and  dam  have  been  given  often  enough,  but  more  or 
less  correctly.  The  dam  checking  the  water  is  four  thousand  feet 
long,  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet  wide  at  the  base,  twenty  feet 
on  the  top  and  sixty  feet  high  in  the  center.  It  took  four  hundred 
mules  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  men-two  years  to  build  it.  The  reser- 
voir and  canal  tapping  Merced  river  cost  together  two  million  dollars 
to  build,  and  the  work  was  constructed  in  such  a  substantial  and 
scientifically  correct  manner,  that  it  will  be  likely  to  last  for  ages. 
There  is  no  other  irrigation  system  in  the  State  that  is  as  well  planned 
and  carried  out.  This  can  and  must  be  said  to  the  honor  of  the  con- 
structors. The  canal  which  taps  the  river  is  twenty-seven  miles  long, 
from  sixty  to  seventy  feet  wide  on  the  bottom,  one  hundred  feet  on  the 
top,  and  has  fall  enough  to  carry  four  thousand  cubic  feet  of  water  per 
second. 

We  have  already  remarked  that  the  country  between  the  dam  and 
the  city  of  Merced  is  a  magnificent  and  level  body  of  land,  all  emi- 
nently suited  for  irrigation.  From  the  water  tower  in  the  reservoir,  we 
overlook  all  this  land,  now  in  its  spring  dress  a  very  beautiful  sight 
indeed.  The  vast  sheet  of  water,  like  a  placid  lake,  in  which  the 
Sierra  Nevada  reflects  its  snowy  peaks,  the  prairie  extending  far  and 
wide,  divided  between  luxuriant  grainfields  and  unbroken  lands  now 


184  THE     RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

covered  with  their  spring  carpet  of  flowers  in  the  colors  of  the  rain- 
bow,— yellow,  white,  blue,  violet,  red  and  shades  of  each,  and  dotted 
over  with  the  new  settlers'  homes,  freshly  built  and  freshly  painted, — 
what  more  lovely  view  could  we  wish,  a  sight  of  beauty  and  of  plenty. 
As  we  drive  back  to  town,  we  are  more  than  at  first  impressed  with  the 
lay  of  the  land.  The  surface  is  level  and  without  hills  or  knolls,  but 
is  cut  through  by  many  natural  channels  or  creeks  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
feet  deep,  insuring  a  natural  drainage,  invaluable  in  a  country  where 
irrigation  is  required. 

The  soil  in  this  part  of  Merced  county  appears  to  be  made  up  entirely 
of  alluvial  deposits  from  the  various  creeks  which  in  winter  irrigate  the 
plains  with  their  natural  overflow.  The  largest  of  these  creeks  is  Bear 
creek,  its  deep  channel  resembling  rather  an  irrigation  ditch  constructed 
on  the  latest  engineering  principles  than  a  natural  stream.  Its  banks 
are  even  and  slanting,  while  its  bed  is  deep  below  the  surface. 

But  our  time  to  stay  was  short.  We  have  left  Merced  and  many 
smaller  towns  behind  us,  crossed  many  more  dry  streams,  and  passed 
the  large  vineyards  at  Minturn,  where  sherry  and  port  of  excellent 
quality  are  made.  We  have  again  crossed  the  main  channel  of  the 
tipper  San  Joaquin,  not  far  from  where  it  emerges  from  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  its  silvery  waters  winding  their  way  over  the  thirsty  plains 
between  steep  and  barren  banks.  We  have  crossed  a  few  irrigating 
ditches  full  to  overflowing  with  water,  and  see  a  few  orchards  and 
vineyards  with  their  bright  green  scattered  about  on  the  yellow  plains. 
There  is  suddenly  a  general  stir  in  the  cars,  hats  and  bundles  are 
taken  down  from  the  racks,  most  of  the  passengers  prepare  to  move, 
the  locomotive  whistles,  houses  and  trees  are  seen  on  both  sides 
through  the  car  windows,  the  train  comes  to  a  standstill,  there  is  a 
hum  of  voices,  a  waiting  crowd  swarms  around  the  cars,  a  throng 
of  people  pushes  in,  and  another  throng  puches  out.  We  are  among 
the  latter,  as  we  are  now  in  Fresno,  the  largest  raisin  center  on  the 
.  continent. 

Fresno,  as  seen  from  the  railroad  station,  is  not  as  inviting  as  it 
might  be,  and  the  thousands  of  travelers  who  pass  by  on  the  cars, 

\J  headed  farther  south,  can  judge  but  little  of  the  town  and  the  district 
behind  it.     The  country  is  so  level,  that  the  only  way  to  get  a  good 
.  view  of  the  country  is  to  ascend  some  elevated  building,  the  court- 
house being  the  highest,  and   through   its  location  the  best  suited 

I  building  for  the  purpose.  The  early  forenoon,  before  the  noonday 
sun  has  acquired  its  full  power,  is  the  best  time  for  this.  Once  up 
there,  the  view  is  decidedly  magnificent,  and  more  extensive  than  we 
had  ever  expected  while  below.  Under  us  lies  a  lovely  park  of  trees, 
— umbrella,  elm,  locust  and  fan  palms,  covering  about  four  blocks. 
From  it  stretch  the  regular  streets  in  all  directions,  lined  by  cottages 
as  well  as  with  costly  dwelling-houses,  shaded  with  stately  trees  of 
various  kinds.  The  business  portion  of  the  town  presents  itself  par- 
ticularly well, — large  and  costly  hotels,  with  comforts  that  the  tired 
travelers  enjoy  so  much,  imposing  bank  blocks  of  brick  and  stone, 
with  towers  and  ornamental  roofs,  solid  structures  with  continuous 
lines  of  stores,  etc.,  mark  this  part  of  town.  For  a  mile  in  every 


THE     RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  185 

direction  the  town  stretches  out,  the  center  thickly  built,  the-  outskirts  / 
with  sparsely  scattered  houses.  Adjoining  these  the  country  begins, — 
vineyards  as  far  as  we  can  trace,  groups  of  houses  shaded  by  trees  in 
different  tints  of  green,  while  broken  rows  of  endless  poplars  traverse 
the  verdant  plains  and  lose  themselves  in  the  distant  horizon.  The 
Sierra  Nevada,  with  their  snowclad  summits,  and  the  Coast  Range  in 
the  west,  cloudy  and  less  distinct,  form  the  frame  for  two  sides  of  this 
attractive  picture,  while  to  the  north  and  the  south  the  open  horizon, 
where  sky  and  plains  meet,  limits  the  extensive  view. 

The  street-car  lines  of  Fresno  do  not  run  very  far  out  in  the  country, 
and  to  see  the  latter  we  must  procure  a  team.  The  colonies  or  settle- 
ments of  small  farms  immediately  join  the  town  limits;  we  are  thus 
with  one  step  out  in  the  country.  On  either  side  we  see  continuous 
rows  of  vineyards, — the  leaves  green  and  brilliant,  the  vines  planted 
in  squares  and  pruned  low,  with  the  branches  trailing  on  the  ground. 
To  begin  with,  the  houses  stand  closely,  almost  as  in  a  village.  As 
we  get  farther  out  there  is  a  house  on  every  twenty-acre  farm,  or  every 
one-eighth  of  a  mile.  The  cottages  are  neat  and  tasty,  surrounded 
by  shade  trees,  while  rose-trees  and  shrubbery  adorn  the  yard,  and 
climbers  shelter  the  verandas  from  the  sun.  /At  every  step,  almost, 
we  pass  teams  going  in  various  directions, — teams  loaded  with  raisin 
boxes,  teams  with  raisin  trays,  teams  crowded  with  raisin  pickers  hur- 
rying out  to  the  vineyards,  teams  driven  by  raisin-growers  or  colonists 
generally,  who  rush  to  and  from  town  to  transact  business  connected 
with  their  one  great  industry.  Everywhere  is  bustle  and  life;  every- 
one is  in  a  hurry,  as  the  grape-picking  has  begun,  and  the  weather  is  , 
favorable;  no  one  has  any  time  to  lose./  Some  of  the  avenues  are  lined 
with  elm-trees,  others  with  fig-trees,  with  their  luscious,  drooping  fruit, 
others  again  are  bordered  with  evergreen  and  towering  gums,  with 
weeping  branches  and  silvery  bark.  Kvery  acre  is  carefully  cultivated; 
there  is  room  for  only  a  few  weeds.  As  far  as  we  drive  the  same  scene 
is  everywhere,  a  scene  like  that  in  the  outskirts  of  a  populous  city, 
where  villas  and  pleasure  grounds  alternate  with  the  cultivated  acres, 
here  those  of  the  raisin-grower,  and"  where  every  foot  of  ground  is 
guarded  with  zealous  care  and  made  to  produce  to  its  utmost  capacity. 
*  It  is  a  pretty  sight,  a  sight  of  thrift  and  intelligence,  of  enterprise  and 
of  success,  of  wealth  and  of  refinement,  found  nowhere  else  outside 
of  the  -fruit-growing  anc^raisin-producing  districts  of  California. 

The  raisin  harvest  has  just  begun  ;  the  vineyards  are  full  of  workers,  ,  if 
grape-pickers  are  stooping  by  every  vine,  and  are  arranging  the  grapes 
on  small  square  or  oblong  trays,  large  enough  to  be  easily  handled; 
teams  with  trucks  are  passing  between  the  vines  distributing  the  trays 
or  piling  them  up  in  small,  square  stacks  at  every  row.  Some  trays 
with  their  amber  grapes  lie  flat  on  the  ground  in  long  continuous  rows 
between  the  vines,  others  again  are  slightly  raised  so  as  to  catch  as 
much  of  the  sun  as  possible.  In  some  vineyards  the  laborers  are  turn- 
ing the  partially  cured  and  dried  raisins  by  placing  one  tray  on  top  of 
another,  and  then  turning  them  quickly  over.  In  other  places,  again, 
the  trays  with  the  raisins  already  cured  are  stacked  in  low  piles,  so  as 
to  exclude  the  sun  and  air,  and  at  other  stacks  a  couple  of  men  at  each. 


186  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

are  busy  assorting  the  grapes,  and  placing  the  various  grades  in  dif- 
ferent sweatboxes,  large  enough  to  hold  one  hundred  pounds  each. 
In  every  vineyard,  large  and  small,  we  find  the  hands  at  work,  and 
every  one  able  and  willing  to  do  a  day's  work  is  engaged  to  harvest 
the  large  crop.  The  most  of  the  pickers  are  Chinese,  at  least  in 
the  larger  vineyards,  while  in  the  smaller  vineyards,  where  large  gangs 
of  men  are  not  absolutely  necessary,  white  men  and  boys  are  generally 
employed.  The  fame  of  the  raisin  section  and  the  harvest  has  spread 
far  and  wide,  and  at  picking  time  laborers  gather  from  all  parts  of  the 
State  to  take  part  in  the  work,  and  find  remunerative  wages  at  from 
$1.25  to  $1.50  per  day.  The  country  now  swarms  with  pickers  of  all 
nationalities, — Germans,  Armenians,  Chinese,  Americans,  Scandina- 
vians, etc. ,  and  as  the  schools  have  closed  in  order  to  allow  the  children 
to  take  part  in  the  work,  boys  of  all  sizes  are  frequently  seen  kneeling 
at  the  vines. 

The  crop  this  year  is  very  heavy,  many  vines  yielding  two  trays  or 
_eyen  three,  containing  twenty  pounds  each,  and,  as  the  trays  are  gen- 
erally" placed  in  alternate  rows  between  the  vines,  we  see,  as  we  pass, 
\  continuous  lines  of  them  filled  with  grapes  in  various  stages  of  curing, 
\|  from  the  green  to  the  amber-colored  and  the  dark  of  the  fully-cured 
'  raisin.     The   aroma  from  the  drying  berries  is  noticeable,  and  the 
breeze  is  laden  with  the  spicy  and  pronounced  odor  of  the  Muscatel 
raisins. 

,/  The  average  size  of  a  colony  lot  is  twenty  acres.  Many  settlers  own 
two  or  three  lots,  a  few  owning  four  or  five.  But  it  must  not  be 
understood  that  the  whole  of  these  lots  are  planted  to  raisin  grapes. 

4  While  most  of  the  larger  tracts  are  almost  exclusively  planted  to  raisin 
grapes,  the  smaller  farms  of  twenty  acres  contain  as  a  rule  only  a  few 
acres  of  vines,  the  balance  being  occupied  by  alfalfa,  berries,  garden, 
fruit  trees,  and  yard  for  houses  and  barns.  From  three  to  fifteen  acres 
of  raisin- vines  are  found  on  every  twenty- acre  farm  ;  none  is  without 
its  patch  of  raisin-vines.  We  step  off  and  inspect  many  of  the  places, 
large  as  well  as  small.  Magnificent  vineyards  are  owned  by  T.  C. 
,X White,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  successful  vineyardists,  and  by 
other  parties,  only  second  in  importance  to  his.  The  vineyard  of  the 
late  Miss  Austin  is  yet  in  its  prime,  the  evergreen  trees  and  hedges  being 
as  inviting  as  in  days  of  old.  New  vineyards  which  have  not  yet  come 
into  bearing  are  seen  on  every  side,  while  in  places  whole  orchards  or 
single  rows  of  trees  have  yielded  to  the  axe  to  be  replaced  by  the  bet- 
ter-paying raisin-vines. 

Some  of  the  best-paying  and  largest  vineyards  are  found  east  of 
1 1  Fresno  City.  From  the  very  outskirts  of  the  city  we  pass  through 
raisin  vineyards,  very  few  fields  being  planted  with  anything  else. 
Near  the  town  some  vineyards  have  given  place  to  town  lots,  and 
whole  villages  are  growing  up  in  the  old  vineyards.  We  pass  by 
the  large  vineyard  of  Frank  Ball,  containing  about  120  acres,  all  in 
vines  except  a  small  reserve  for  house,  barn  and  alfalfa  field.  Adjoining 
on  the  same  road  is  the  Bretzner  vineyard  of  forty  odd  acres,  the  vines 
loaded  with  grapes.  We  turn  to  the  left  and,  passing  the  vineyards  of 
Merriam  and  Reed,  see  on  our  left  the  magnificent  Cory  vineyard  of 


THK    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  187 

eighty  acres,  bordered  by  a  wonderfully  beautiful  row  of  umbrella 
trees,  with  crowns  as  even  as  veritable  gigantic  umbrellas,  and  through 
the  foliage  of  which  not  a  ray  of  light  can  penetrate.  A  little  farther 
on,  also  to  the  left,  is  the  Gordon  vineyard,  lined  by  fan  palms  and 
fig  trees.  A  large  sign  across  the  main  road  announces  that  we  now 
enter  the  Butler  vineyard,  the  largest  and  most  famous  vineyard  in  the  • 
State,  with  its  six  hundred  acres  nearly  all  in  vines, — the  largest  vine- 
yard in  one  body  and  owned  by  one  man  in  the  world.  Magnificent 
avenues  of  poplars,  magnolias  and  fan  palms  stretch  in  various  direc- 
tions leading  to  the  outbuildings,  of  which  the  packing  and  drying 
houses  appear  most  prominently.  Mr.  Butler's  home  is  one  of  the 
most  attractive,  shaded  by  umbrella  treesfattd  "majeSticTfan  palms,  and 
surrounded  by  flowers  and  evergreens.  From  his  vineyard  alone  over 
five  hundred  carloads  of  raisins  have  been  shipped,  the  yearly  product 
being  over  one  hundred  thousand  boxes  of  raisins, — a  thousand  tons. 
The  vineyard  now  swarms  with  laborers  ;  the  teams  wait  in  long  lines 
to  load  the  ready  raisin-boxes,  while  the  spaces  between  the  vines,  as 
far  as  we  can  see,  are  almost  covered  with  continuous  rows  of  trays,  all 
loaded  with  Muscat  grapes  in  all  stages  of  drying. 

We  travel  constantly  eastward ;  on  both  sides  are  raisin  vineyards, 
large  and  small.  The  four  hundred  acres  owned  by  the  Fresno  Vine- 
yard Company  are  devoted  to  wine  grapes,  and  large  wineries  and  cel- 
lars built  of  adobe  show  the  wealth  and  extensive  business  of  the  place. 
No  vacant  land  anywhere,  nothing  but  vineyards,  the  only  breaks 
being  groves  of  trees  shading  the  homes,  wine  cellars  or  packing- 
houses of  the  proprietor.  Farther  to  the  north  lies  in  an  unbroken 
row  the  well-known  Eisen  vineyard,  where  the  first  raisins  were  made 
in  this  district,  but  where  now  principally  wine  is  produced ;  the  Nevada 
and  Temperance  Colonies,  devoted  mostly  to  raisins  ;  the  Pew,  the 
Kennedy,  the  Forsyth,  Woodworth's,  Duncan's,  Goodman's  and  Back- 
man's  raisin  vineyards,  all  splendidly  cared  for  and  lined  by  fig  trees. 
Of  these  the  Forsyth  vineyard  deserves  more  than  a  passing  notice,  as 
it  is  more  inviting  to  an  hour's  rest  than  any  other.  Containing  160 
acres,  nearly  all  in  vines,  it  is  one  of  the  best  properties  of  the  county. 
The  place  shows  an  uncommon  taste"  and  refinement,  and  is  beautified 
by  avenues  of  poplars  and  magnolias,  by  groves  of  acacia  and  um- 
brella trees,  by  palms  and  flowers,  and  by  roses  and  climbing  plants. 
A  pond  with  its  lilies,  overhung  by  weeping  willows  and  shaded  by 
stately  elms,  is  an  unusual  sight  even  in  this  county  of  abundant  irri- 
gation. The  packing-houses  and  dryer  all  display  a  taste  and  practi- 
cal arrangement  hardly  seen  elsewhere.  A  climb  to  the  top  of  the 
tank-house  is  well  worth  the  trouble.  The  view  becomes  wonderfully 
enlarged ;  we  overlook  the  level  plains,  all  in  vines,  with  houses  and 
groves  scattered  about  like  islands  in  a  sea, — no  wild,  unbroken 
country  anywhere.  In  the  distance  is  Fresno  City,  to  the  north  the 
view  is  hemmed  in  by  new  vineyards  and  colonies, — a  mass  of  trees  and 
vines  in  straight  and  regular  rows.  The  courteous  owner  conducts 
us  through  his  packing-house  and  shows  us  how  the  bunches  are 
placed  in  layers  and  carefully  made  to  fit  every  corner  in  the  box,  * 
how  the  boxes  are  covered  with  papers  and  artistic  labels  and  finally  *r 


188  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

made  ready  for  the  market.  As  we  pass  out  we  get  a  glimpse  of  the 
equalizing  room,  crowded  to  the  ceiling  with  sweatboxes,  in  which  the 
raisins  assume  an  even  and  uniform  moisture.  And  what  luscious 
bunches  they  are,  large,  sweet,  thin  skinned  and  highly  flavored. 
Malaga  produces  nothing  better,  and  much  not  as  good.  And,  when 
we  are 'all  through  tasting  and  admiring,  we  are  invited  into  the  cosy 
and  artistically  furnished  dwelling,  where  in  the  cool  shade  the  lunch 
and  the  rest  are  as  welcome  and  interesting  as  the  vineyards  and  pack- 
ing-houses outside. 

As  we  turn  again  towards  town,  we  pass  the  well-kept  Goodman 
vineyard,  after  which  we  enter  the  large  Barton  vineyard,  now  partly 
owned  by  an  English  syndicate.  The  old  640  acres  are  nearly  all  in 
wine  grapes,  while  several  hundred  acres  of  young  raisin  grapes  have 
lately  been  added.  One  of  the  most  extensive  wine  cellars  in  the  State 
is  found  here,  all  kept  in  splendid  shape, — hardly  a  speck  of  dirt, 
not  a  foot  of  waste  land  seen  anywhere.  The  mansion  is  stately, 
situated  on  a  small  hill  surrounded  by  fine  grovelTot  gum-treeS,  eVer- 
green  hedges  and  ornamental  grounds.  Should  we  care  to  go  farther 
east,  we  might  visit  the  Kisen  vineyard,  where  the  first  Muscats  were 
planted  in  the  county.  The  famous  avenue  is  half  a  mile  long,  and  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  State,  lined  on  both  sides  with  blooming  and 
beautiful  oleanders  alternating  with  poplars  over  a  hundred  feet  high. 
We  might  also  visit  the  L,ocan  vineyard  and  orchard,  and  admire  the 
orange-trees,  which  speak  of  what  the  country  can  produce  in  this 
line.  But  the  time  is  too  short;  we  might  travel  a  week  over  this 
level  but  beautiful  country,  and  every  day,  every  minute,  see  some- 
thing new  and  interesting  among  all  these  vineyards,  with  their  pack- 
ing-houses, and  raisins  exposed  on  trays  to  dry. 

When  we  return  to  town,  a  visit  to  the  packing-houses  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  that  can  be  made.  Of  these  packing  establishments 
Fresno  has  four  or  five,  besides  several  in  the  colonies  or  in  the  larger 
vineyards.  Three  of  these  packing-houses  are  the  largest  in  the 
State.  The  building  of  each  one  of  them,  though  large,  is  full  and 
overcrowded.  Women  at  long  tables  pack  the  raisins  in  boxes,  at 
other  tables  men  weigh  and  assort  raisins  and  take  them  out  of  the 
large  sweatboxes  in  which  they  left  the  field.  At  some  tables  fancy 
\/  packing  is  done,  and  women  "face"  the  boxes  by  placing  large 
selected  raisins  in  rows  on  the  top  layers.  At  another  table  the 
raisin-boxes  are  covered  with  fine  colored  labels,  then  nailed  and  made 
ready  for  shipment.  Some  four  hundred  men  and  women  are  busy 

(with  this  work  under  one  roof,  all  earning  wages  of  from  one  to  two 
dollars  a  day  each.  We  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  equalizing  room,  where 
fifty  tons  of  raisins  are  stored  at  one  time  for  a  week  or  more  in  order 
to  become  of  even  moisture,  the  floor  being  sometimes  sprinkled  with 
water  to  make  the  air  sufficiently  moist.  As  we  go  out  we  see  the 
raisin-boxes  already  packed  being  loaded  on  cars  and  shipped  east 
by  the  train-load,  from  four  to  six  such  raisin  trains  leaving  every 
week,  each  train  of  from  ten  to  twenty  cars.  On  the  other  side  of 
the  packing-house  is  a  continuous  row  of  teams  from  the  country,  all 
loaded  with  raisins,  brought  by  the  country  growers  to  the  packers  in 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  189 

town.  It  takes  a  gang  of  men  to  receive,  weigh  and  unload  them.  In 
another  department  we  see  the  large  stemmer  and  grader,  which  runs 
by  steam,  and  stems  and  assorts  from  thirty  to  forty  tons  per  day,  the 
clean  and  uniform  raisins  running  out  in  a  continuous  stream,  each 
grade  in  separate  boxes.  There  is  a  restless  activity  on  every  side. 
The  large  raisin  crop  this  year  is  very  large;  it  must  be  handled  in  a 
few  months,  and  every  grower  and  packer  is  pushing  the  work  to  his 
utmost  ability. 

When  we  consider  that  most  of  the  crop,  which  this  year  will  reach 
five  hundred  thousand  boxes,  comes  from  the  country  immediately 
surrounding  Fresno  City,  and  that  the  San  Joaquin  valley  is  250  miles 
long  by  75  miles  wide,  almost  all  the  land  capable  of  being  highly 
cultivated  and  of  producing  abundant  crops  of  one  thing  or  another, 
then  alone  can  we  realize  what  the  future  has  in  store  for  this  wonder- 
ful valley,  an  agricultural  empire  in  the  very  center  of  California. 

FROM  LOS  ANGELES  TO  SANTA  ANA. 

We  are  fairly  out  of  Los  Angeles  when  the  character  of  the  scenery 
changes.  The  railroad  here  runs  through  one  of  the  most  fertile 
counties  in  the  State, — the  rich  bottom  lands  being  formed  by  the 
deposits  of  ages  from  the  overflow  of  rivers  and  creeks  from  the  Sierra 
Madre  range.  Not  an  acre  of  waste  land  is  to  be  seen  anywhere. 
Everything  is  clothed  in  the  softest  green,  and  only  in  the  far  distance 
are  seen  the  hills  and  higher  mountains  of  a  brownish  violet  color, 
with  the  boldest  outlines  against  the  sky.  A  more  diversified  farming 
district  is  seldom  seen.  Orchards  of  prunes,  walnuts,  apples  and  figs 
are  met  with  on  either  side  of  the  track,  here  and  there  expansive 
vineyards  with  their  characteristic  green,  or  groves  of  straight  and 
stately  gums,  like  immense  square  blocks  of  verdure,  planted  all  along 
from  the  nearest  fields  to  the  far  distant  hills.  We  pass  in  succession 
Ballona,  Florence,  Downey  and  Norwalk.  The  country  around  the 
two  latter  places  seems  especially  attractive, — orchards  as  far  as  we  can 
see,  vineyards  and  native  pastures.  We  pass  villages  and  farmhouses, 
here  and  there  a  more  pretentious  villa,  and,  in  some  spots  more  lovely 
than  the  surrounding,  many  a  mansion  has  been  erected  with  luxury 
and  taste. 

We  are  soon  in  Orange  county,  and  the  scene  changes  some,  the  soil 
being,  if  possible,  more  fertile.  We  pass  large  orange  groves  of  the 
deepest  green,  and  immense  fields  of  corn,  squashes,  pumpkins,  pea- 
nuts, beans,  and  here  and  there  walnut  groves  and  plantations  of 
young  fig  trees.  Anaheim,  Orange  and  Santa  Ana  come  in  quick  suc- 
cession; we  are  in  the  center  of  a  raisin  district  of  the  very  greatest 
interest.  We  can  hardly  realize  the  change.  Not  having  been  here 
since  the  boom,  everything  seems  almost  new.  Santa  Ana  has  grown  to 
be  the  queen  of  the  valley,  and  is  undoubtedly,  together  with  its  two 
sister  cities,  Orange  and  Tustin,  one  of  the  most  prosperous  as  well  as 
lovely  places  to  be  found  in  the  beautiful  South.  As  we  board  the 
street  car  and  ride  up  town  from  the  depot,  we  realize  the  change  even 
more.  On  every  side  are  signs  of  wealth  and  refinement,  of  new  ideas 


190  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

and  new  capital,  both  mostly  imported  from  the  East.  Broad  avenues 
one  hundred  feet  wide,  on  either  side,  lined  with  trees  of  various 
kinds,  cultivated  fields  immediately  beyond,  which,  with  cottages,  vil- 
las and  churches,  all  speak  of  a  prosperous  and  intelligent  population. 

Santa  Ana  has  her  share  of  these  stately  structures.  The  Brunswick 
is  as  fine  and  substantial  a  building  as  any  one  could  wish, — lofty  and 
airy  and  of  imposing  architecture,  large  rooms  and  spacious  halls.  The 
boom  that  has  been  so  much  misjudged  has  done  much  more  than  set- 
tle up  the  country  and  bring  capital.  It  has  left  behind  substantial 
improvements  and  a  taste  for  architecture,  the  arts  and  sciences,  which 
can  but  be  of  permanent  value  to  the  country.  It  brought  the  country 
at  one  bound  from  its  former  frontier  life  and  characteristics  to  a  high 
degree  of  civilization  and  refinement.  It  brought  capital,  soil,  climate 
and  energy  together  in  a  way  that  is  hardly  found  anywhere  else  out 
of  our  State.  The  boom  is  over,  but  the  benefits  of  the  boom  are  yet 
here,  and  are  permanent. 

Santa  Ana,  Orange  and  Tustin  are  like  three  precious  stones  in  a 
ring  of  verdure.  Only  a  few  miles  apart,  they  are  like  the  villas  on  the 
outskirts  of  a  central  imaginary  city,  from  which  the  wealthy  and  poor 
likewise  fled  to  a  more  retired  country  life,  to  enjoy  both  seclusion  and 
society,  both  the  pleasures  of  country  life  and  the  advantages  of  an 
active  city,  where  every  luxury  and  necessity  can  be  found  at  the  door 
of  every  home. 

Santa  Ana  has  a  fine,  large,  central  business  street,  with  new  and 
costly  brick  blocks  containing  stores  of  every  description.  In  this  cli- 
mate, however,  we  can  see  no  necessity  for  ice,  and  the  manufacturer 
and  mixer  of  cool  drinks  can  but  find  his  business  unprofitable.  Up 
and  down  this  street  a  line  of  cars  runs  all  day  long  at  fixed  hours, 
connecting  with  other  lines  in  Tustin  and  Orange.  A  trip  or  two  on 
any  of  the  lines  is  one  of  real  pleasure. 

Tustin  is  only  two  or  three  miles  away,  nearer  the  hills.  The  car, 
an  open  one  with  many  seats,  winds  its  way  under  shady  lanes  on 
either  side,  bordered  by  large  and  graceful  pepper  trees  covered  with 
spicy  and  fragrant  blossoms.  Here  and  there  we  see  alongside  the 
pavement  an  enormous  sycamore  tree,  a  monument  of  olden  days  and 
the  native  vegetation  of  the  country.  On  both  sides  of  the  avenue  are 
sidewalks  of  cement,  and  they  who  prefer  walking  can  do  so  for  miles 
under  the  shady  trees  without  getting  dusty  or  becoming  heated  by  the 
sun.  These  sidewalks  are  marvels  of  beauty  and  comfort.  On  one 
side  are  old  and  graceful  trees  with  drooping  limbs,  on  the  other  are 
well-kept  cypress  hedges  trimmed  square  and  even,  or  long  natural 
barriers  of  ever-blooming  geraniums  in  numerous  varieties,  of  every 
favorite  shade  of  color  from  crimson  to  palest  pink.  Over  the  hedges 
we  look  into  blue-grass  lawns,  green  and  well  kept  and  exceed- 
ingly attractive.  Suddenly  we  are  in  the  middle  of  Tustin  City.  A 
beautiful,  even  magnificent  bank  building  on  one  corner,  a  store  on  the 
opposite,  two  or  three  smaller  shops  and  the  inevitable  splendid  and 
elaborate  hotel,  and  the  town  is  fully  described.  Immediately  adjoin- 
ing are  the  beautiful  and  evergreen  lawns  and  trees, — the  city  an4 
country  actually  combined. 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  191 

A  trip  to  Orange  reveals  the  very  same  features,  only  we  pass  through 
a  more  fertile  country,  with  vineyards  and  orchards  on  every  side, 
orange  groves  of  various  ages,  walnut  orchards,  fields  of  tall  corn, 
peanuts,  beans  and  melons.  Between  all  wind  the  shaded  avenues 
with  pepper  and  gum,  cypress,  pine  or  yellow  flowering  grevillea. 
The  soil  is  everywhere  of  the  richest  kind,  of  a  color  between  ashy 
green  and  chocolate.  Nowhere  have  we  seen  such  magnificent  Indian 
corn, — whole  fields  where  the  stalks  are  from  twelve  to  sixteen  feet 
high.  Orange  is  a  more  pretentious  town  than  Tustin,  but  hardly  any 
more  beautiful,  and  far  less  secluded  and  quiet.  There  are  two 
large  and  fine  hotels,  the  one  of  brick  being  in  town,  while  the 
other,  the  family  hotel,  lies  in  the  suburbs  in  bowers  of  evergreen  trees 
and  gardens.  In  the  middle  of  the  town  there  is  a  plaza  with  a  foun- 
tain and  an  exquisite  little  garden  well  planned  and  better  kept.  The 
lawns  are  like  the  softest  velvet,  and  are  bordered  with  blue  and  green 
flowers,  with  beds  of  sweetest  mignonette,  while  bananas  and  palms 
spread  their  stately  foliage  in  the  center. 

The  climate  of  this  part  of  Southern  California  is  excellent.  The 
thermometer  stands  at  midday  at  eighty  in  the  shade;  in  the  evening 
there  is  always  a  breeze.  Many  of  those  I  meet  complain  as  usual, 
and  greet  me  with  the  inevitable,  "  How  warm  it  is  to-day,"  and  our 
as  inevitable  answer  is,  that  we  cannot  feel  it,  and  that  it  just  seems 
delightful  to  us.  People  here  observe  and  feel  the  changes  of  temper- 
ature much  more  than  we  do  farther  north.  With  us  they  share  the 
habit  of  complaining  even  if  there  is  nothing  to  complain  of. 

The  vineyards  of  Santa  Ana  have  suffered  much  from  a  vine  disease 
which  may  be  compared  with  consumption  or  the  Oriental  plague  in 
man.  But  every  one  thinks  here  that  the  pest  will  run  its  course  and 
become  harmless,  and  even  now  some  of  the  vineyards  are  being 
replanted  with  fresh  vines.  The  oranges  do  eminently  well,  but 
they  must  be  sprayed  and  constant  watch  kept  for  the  red  scale 
imported  here  from  Australia  by  an  enterprising  nurseryman.  The 
plantations  of  walnuts  are  being  rapidly  extended,  and  nurseries  of 
young  walnut  trees  just  appearing  above  the  ground  are  seen  in 
many  places,  the  plants  probably  amounting  to  millions.  The  walnut 
generally  planted  is  the  seedling  soft-shell  and  the  common  Santa  Ana 
walnut,  than  which  there  is  none  choicer  and  more  valued  on  the  coast. 
Prunes  are  also  a  favorite  crop,  and  pay  well  if  not  allowed  to  over- 
bear, in  which  case  the  succeeding  crop  will  be  small.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  apricot.  These  trees  are  here  fine  and  healthy,  and  of  a 
deeper  and  finer  green  than  is  seen  almost  any  where  else;  but  last  year 
the  trees  bore  too  much,  and  this  year  the  crop  is  by  far  not  what  it 
should  be. 

The  resources  of  this  country  are  such  that  the  partial  failure  of  a 
single  crop  will  cause  no  serious  injury.  New  resources  are  developed 
every  day;  there  are  few  plants  that  do  not  thrive  here.  In  the  gar- 
dens as  well  as  in  the  fields  we  see  the  tender  semi-tropical  plants, 
which  cannot  stand  any  frost,  growing  close  to  varieties  from  the 
North.  Bananas,  date  palms,  walnuts  and  oranges  grow  in  the  same 
field  with  peaches,  apples  and  prunes.  Pepper  and  camphor  trees  and 


192  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

the  tender  grevillea  are  on  one  side  of  the  avenue,  while  on  the  other 
side  we  may  find  elm,  eucalyptus  or  even  the  beautiful  umbrella. 

Irrigation  is  practiced  on  every  farm.  Fifteen  thousand  acres  are 
covered  by  water  stock,  but  not  all  irrigated  yet.  Just  now  the  orange 
groves  are  irrigated,  and  I  observe  their  methods.  The  land  is  always 
leveled  before  anything  is  planted,  as  there  is  too  little  water  here  to 
waste  any  on  unlevel  land.  One  way  to  irrigate  an  orchard  is  to  plow 
furrows  in  between  the  rows  of  trees,  and  then  let  the  water  run  in 
them.  Another  way  is  to  check  the  whole  orchard  with  small  levees, 
inclosing  thus  a  little  square  around  every  tree,  and  the  square  check 
of  one  tree  meeting  the  same  of  the  adjoining  tree.  This  is  actually 
flooding  the  land.  Deciduous  trees  and  vines  grow  without  irrigation, 
but  to  get  a  good  crop  irrigation  is  necessary.  The  large,  dry  and 
rocky  creek  beds  speak  of  the  water  that  is  wasted  in  winter  time  in 
flowing  to  the  sea.  Practically  nothing  of  it  is  then  saved.  Irriga- 
tion districts  under  the  Wright  law  are  formed  and  forming,  and  every- 
body seems  hopeful  that  in  course  of  time  there  will  be  water  enough 
to  irrigate  all  the  land  that  is  good  enough  to  be  irrigated.  Some  of 
the  finest  ranches  in  the  State  lie  right  at  the  feet  of  Santa  Ana.  The 
San  Joaquin  ranch  contains  one  hundred  thousand  acres,  I  am  told,  and 
it  is  not  yet  cut  up,  and  thus  some  of  the  best  land  around  Santa  Ana 
is  yet  only  used  as  pasture.  The  owners  failed  to  sell  in  the  time  of  the 
boom  and  must  now  wait  until  the  land  that  is  already  covered  with 
ditches  will  be  fully  settled  before  they  can  sell,  but  the  time,  we  pre- 
dict, is  not  very  far  off. 

SANTA  ANA  TO  SAN   DIEGO. 

A  railroad  trip  from  Santa  Ana  to  San  Diego  offers  many  points 
of  interest.  It  carries  us  through  both  the  most  highly  cultivated 
and  through  the  absolutely  vacant,  not  to  say  barren,  lands.  We- 
leave  the  orange  grove  and  walnut  plantations  of  Santa  Ana,  and  are 
carried  almost  immediately  past  the  lovely  and  shaded  Tustin,  where 
pepper  groves  and  lime  hedges,  gardens  and  splendid  villas,  combine 
nature  with  art,  taste  and  enterprise  to  create  a  veritable  oasis  for  those 
favored  ones  who  can  remain  there.  We  rush  for  a  few  minutes  through 
these  highly  cultivated  lands,  and  suddenly  find  ourselves  out  on  a 
wide,  open  plain,  comprising  about  eighty  thousand  acres,  without  a 
house  to  be  seen  anywhere,  with  no  orchards,  no  vineyards,  no  signs 
of  civilized  life.  And  still  the  soil  is  the  richest,  the  native  vegetation 
of  grasses  the  most  luxuriant.  The  soil  is  apparently  subirrigated, 
and  could  grow  almost  anything  the  farmer  might  plant  there.  Along 
the  horizon,  stretching  from  the  mountains  way  down  on  the  plains 
like  an  immense  phimed  serpent  in  its  wavy  and  coiling  track,  is  seen 
a  continuous  band  of  sycamore  trees,  outlining  the  bed  of  a  stream.  It 
is  like  stepping  out  of  one  room  into  another.  What  can  be  the  reason 
of  the  sudden  change?  This  vast  body  of  land,  containing  over 
126,000  acres,  is  an  old  Mexican  grant,  the  remnant  of  one  of  those 
Mexican  cancers,  which  to  such  an  extent  has  retarded  the  develop- 
ment of  California.  Sure  enough,  we  see  wire  fences  everywhere, 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  193 

and  cattle  with  spreading  horns  and  sheep  without  number.  But  we 
see  no  sign  of  the  cultivator,  no  horses,  no  signs  of  progress.  The 
owner  held  onto  the  land,  probably  expecting  it  to  bring  a  price  many 
times  the  sum  it  was  worth.  He  died,  and  so  died  the  boom,  and  now 
the  land  is  under  administration.  When  the  time  comes  that  this 
large  San  Joaquin  grant  can  be  sold  to  farmers  in  small  tracts,  it  will 
very  greatly  increase  the  cultivable  area  of  Orange  county. 

But  we  pass  on,  leaving  the  open  country;  we  are  soon  in  among 
the  rolling  lands,  among  foothills  not  unlike  those  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada in  the  San  Joaquin  valley.  To  the  left  are  the  San  Bernardino 
Mountains,  here  and  there  a  peak  of  boldest  outline,  and  streams  and 
canons  winding  their  way  to  the  sea.  At  El  Toro  a  number  of  passen- 
gers got  off  to  take  the  stage  to  I^aguna,  a  seaside  hotel,  where  the 
farmers  and  business  men  of  every  color,  from  the  heated  interior  val- 
leys, delight  to  spend  a  day  in  fishing,  hunting  for  abalones,  or  in 
watching  the  breakers  roll  against  the  sandy  beach.  A  little  farther 
on  we  stop  at  HI  Capistrano,  or  rather  at  San  Juan  Capistrano,  the  old 
ruined  mission,  situated  in  the  most  beautiful  little  valley,  with  its 
winding  and  sycamore  shaded  creek.  The  mission  must  have  been 
one  of  the  very  largest  in  the  State.  The  ruins  are  yet  very  extensive, 
consisting  of  long  and  regular  adobe  walls,  and  one-half  of  a  yet  mag- 
nificent looking  church,  in  the  regular  Spanish  style  of  architecture. 
A  rather  large  size  town  of  Mexican  houses,  with  a  Mexican  popula- 
tion, and  venerable  fig  trees,  tall  and  wavy  palm  trees,  and  large  but 
unkempt  gardens,  give  the  place  a  rather  more  important  look  than  it 
perhaps  deserves.  There  is  but  little  sign  that  the  boom  was  ever  here. 
Still  the  valley  is  so  beautiful  and  evidently  so  fertile,  that  it  needs 
only  work  and  taste  to  make  it  equal  to  the  very  best.  We  see  yet 
the  old  mission  pear  trees,  large  and  untrimmed,  not  unlike  our  droop- 
ing oaks,  loaded  with  pears  to  such  an  extent  that  there  appears 
hardly  room  for  a  blackbird  to  get  through.  The  mission  grapevines 
are  all  dead.  Gigantic  vines,  which  covered  trellises  and  arbors,  and 
which  perhaps  bore  tons  of  grapes,  with  trunks  as  heavy  as  the  body 
of  a  boy,  are  there  yet,  but  without  leaves  and  young  shoots ;  they 
are  dead,  having  surrendered  to  the  vine  pest  of  the  country. 

After  leaving  Capistrano  we  follow  the  little  creek  to  the  sea.  The 
valley  is  from  one-half  to  one  mile  wide.  Here  and  there  are  flourish- 
ing little  vineyards,  but  mostly  pastures  and  cornfields  or  patches  of 
beans.  At  last  we  reach  the  sea,  the  Pacific,  calm  and  blue,  with 
breakers  lashing  the  shore.  To  the  right  we  leave  the  rocky  promon- 
tory of  the  Capistrano  Mountains,  and  for  an  hour  or  more  run  on  the 
very  beach.  In  stormy  weather  the  spray  of  the  breakers  must  wet  the 
cars,  which  run  only  a  stone's  throw  from  the  water's  edge.  This  part 
of  the  route  is  the  most  interesting  and  the  most  refreshing  to  one 
coming  from  the  interior  plains.  We  are  now  in  San  Diego  county. 
The  shore  is  abrupt  and  bluffy,  the  hills  bordering  on  the  sea. 

At  Oceanside  we  meet  the  first  of  the  boom  towns,  one  of  those  that 
sprang  up  for  pleasure  and  profit,  towns  of  magnificent  villas,  broad 
streets  and  avenues,  lined  with  infant  blue  gums,  with  rows  and  hedges 
of  the  ever-bright  geraniums,  and  with  large  and  splendid-looking 


194  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

hotels,  with  airy  balconies,  verandas  and  lookout  towers,  swept  by  the 
fresh  breezes  of  the  sea.  The  vicinity  of  every  such  station  is  heralded 
by  the  characteristic  white  stakes  that  mark  the  town  lots,  and  by 
rows  of  small,  intensely  blue,  gums ;  by  a  sprinkling  of  cottages, 
small  and  large,  perhaps  a  mile  or  two  before  the  whistle  of  the  steam- 
engine  brings  us  to  a  standstill.  The  first  things  that  meet  our  eye  at 
every  station  are  large  and  splendid  lawns,  young  plantations  of  palm 
trees  and  other  plants  characteristic  of  the  Southern  coast  climate, 
flowers  of  brightest  hue,  all  started  by  the  enterprising  immigrants 
who  came  here  to  buy  climate,  sun  and  air,  and  to  enjoy  the  breakers 
and  the  ocean  every  day  in  the  year.  After  Oceanside,  we  touch  at 
Carlsbad  and  Del  Mar,  both  seaside  resorts  with  magnificent  villas 
costing  from  twenty  to  forty  thousand  dollars  each,  and  with  fine  but 
young  plantations  and  gardens.  I  was  especially  charmed  with  Del 
Mar,  with  its  large,  tasteful  hotel  on  the  bluff,  and  quite  a  large  col- 
on}'' of  villas  and  mansions  in  various  sizes  and  styles  close  around, — a 
bright  and  charming  picture,  a  place  where  a  traveler  feels  at  home  at 
once,  where  he  would  like  to  pass  the  balance  of  all  the  days  he  can 
spare  from  business  and  toil. 

The  scene  changes  again  as  the  cars  carry  us  through  the  foothills, 
along  the  bed  of  creeks,  or  across  lagoons  connected  with  the  sea,  or 
over  gaping  chasms.  We  look  down  deep  into  the  valleys  below, 
where  shady  sycamores  and  white  cottages  mark  the  farmers'  homes, 
and  where  vine-clad  hills  offset  the  native  brown  of  the  country.  I 
am  surprised  to  see  how  the  grapevines  thrive  so  luxuriantly  so  very 
close  to  the  shore.  In  some  places  there  are  fine  and  thrifty  vines  within 
a  stone's  throw  of  the  breakers,  only  protected  by  a  slight  undulation 
in  the  ground  from  the  most  direct  wind.  Of  course,  grapes  on  those 
vines  cannot  be  expected  to  be  very  sweet ;  it  is  wonderful  enough  that 
they  are  there  at  all. 

The  water  supply  of  this  part  of  San  Diego  county  has  been  very 
much  underrated.  The  railroad  crosses  perhaps  a  dozen  different 
creeks,  all  showing  living  water,  and  which  are  far  from  being  entirely 
dried  up.  With  a  Supreme  Court  more  enlightened,  and  with  proper 
legislation  as  to  the  needs  of  the  country,  San  Diego  county  may  yet 
be  able  to  store  water  enough  to  irrigate  very  large  areas  of  land,  where 
colonies  of  thrifty  farmers  may  create  and  maintain  prosperous 
orchards  and  vineyards  as  a  support  and  backbone  to  the  many 
pleasure  resorts. 

But  we  are  out  of  the  hills.  Smiling  and  glistening  in  the  evening 
sun  lies  San  Diego  Bay,  with  the  elevated  Point  I,oma,  the  ever-pres- 
ent breakers  on  the  bar,  and  away  out  on  the  low  peninsula  the 
gigantic  and  turreted  pile  of  the  Hotel  del  Coronado,  to  say  nothing  of 
San  Diego  itself,  with  its  miles  of  marked  town  lots  and  villas.  But  I 
shall  not  endeavor  to  describe  this  town  and  its  bay  and  climate.  The 
latter  may  possibly  not  be  excelled  anywhere ;  the  former  lacks  a 
most  essential  thing, — an  abundance  of  trees  and  vegetation.  Still, 
with  the  water  that  has  lately  been  brought  here  the  trees  and  flowers 
will  come  soon  enough  we  hope,  when  green  lawns,  bananas  and 
palms  will  be  ready  to  tell  the  tale,  and  young  plantations  will  be 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  195 

seen  on   the  hills  and  around  roadway  homes.     But  I  forget  I  am 
bound  for  El  Cajon  and  its  raisin  vineyards,  and  must  catch  the  train. 

EL  CAJON. 

The  country  lying  between  San  Diego  and  El  Cajon  does  not  at 
this  time  of  the  year  present  many  attractive  features.  The  little 
train,  consisting  of  a  locomotive,  tender  and  a  passenger  car,  wriggles 
itself  between  brown,  rolling  hills,  over  small  canons,  dry  and  sandy, 
without  any  other  vegetation  than  grass,  and  here  and  there  a  few 
evergreen  shrubs.  Close  to  San  Diego  we  pass  along  the  Chollas  val- 
ley and  creek,  where  an  attempt  has  been  made  at  colonization,  as 
we  understand  it  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley.  The  land  is  divided 
up  in  ten  and  twenty-acre  tracts  and  dotted  over  with  small  and  un- 
pretentious cottages,  as  well  as  with  fine  and  expensive  mansions. 
Young  orchards  of  pears,  olives,  prunes,  oranges  and  figs  are  seen 
wedged  in  between  vacant  and  unbroken  land.  In  the  river  bottom 
are  Chinese  gardens,  with  windmills,  and  patches  of  cabbage,  corn 
and  small  truck.  Much  of  this  land  is  irrigated  with  water  from  the 
Sweetwater  dam,  some  twelve  miles  away  on  the  Sweetwater  river. 
On  the  bottom  land  there  are  a  few  Muscat  vineyards,  for  the  supply 
of  the  San  Diego  market.  I  noticed  the  grapes  there.  They  were 
of  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria  variety,  very  large  and  fine  both  as  to 
bunch  and  berry,  and  very  sweet.  I  have  seen  no  finer  Alexandrias 
anywhere. 

But  we  have  hardly  time  to  observe  this  cultivated  spot  before  we 
are  out  again  among  the  rolling  hills.  The  engine  pants  heavily,  and 
we  are  constantly  ascending.  The  same  low  hills  everywhere, — no 
settlers,  no  gardens,  no  plantations  of  any  kind.  The  soil  is  brown 
adobe  mixed  with  gravel  and  small  boulders;  in  fact  there  is  nothing 
to  see  and  admire.  For  twenty  miles  there  are  two  or  three  small 
stations,  but  there  were  no  station  houses  to  be  seen  nor  any  settle- 
ments around.  The  railroad  is  apparently  made  to  tap  a  better  coun- 
try in  the  interior.  But  even  in  this"  uninhabited  country  the  boom 
started  to  penetrate  in  earnest.  Large  signs  announcing  the  sale  of 
town  lots,  wide  streets  once  plowed  up  across  each  other  at  right 
angles,  square  blocks  which  are  plowed  around  or  otherwise  mapped 
out,  here  and  there  a  white  post  with  a  number  and  a  name,  and 
we  have  a  good  idea  of  a  town  where  the  lots  sold  for  $250  apiece  or 
more. 

All  at  once  the  engine  whistles,  the  area  widens  and  we  see  in  front 
of  us  a  large,  flat  valley,  apparently  almost  circular,  from  four  to  five 
miles  across,  bounded  by  lower  and  higher  hills,  behind  which  a  few 
higher  peaks  look  down  gray  and  solemn.  This  is  El  Cajon.  We 
step  out  on  the  platform  of  the  station,  and  the  view  is  fine.  The 
valley  lies  below  us,  the  bottom  is  apparently  flat,  but  in  reality 
slightly  undulating  and  somewhat  sloping  towards  the  center.  Rows 
of  vines  begin  at  the  station,  and  from  here  vineyards  stretch  in  all 
directions  for  miles  and  miles,  sometimes  in  large  blocks  of  regular 
shape,  then  again  in  irregular  patches  among  otherwise  cultivated 


196  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

lands  half  way  up  on  the  lower  hills.  Dotted  all  over  the  valley  are 
farmhouses  in  all  styles,  elegant  and  tasty  or  plain  and  simple,  enough 
only  to  keep  out  the  rain  and  the  sun.  Around  every  such  cluster  of 
buildings  there  is  a  little  plantation  of  eucalyptus  and  cypress,  and  a 
few  ornamental  plants.  Here  and  there  at  long  intervals  is  seen  a  row 
of  gums,  black  and  somber,  as  if  they  were  on  duty  as  shields  from 
wind  and  fog.  We  are  soon  in  the  bus  on  the  way  to  town.  The 
roads  are  straight  and  well  kept,  bordered  with  young  eucalyptus  and 
cypress,  and  with  vineyards  on  both  sides  with  the  rows  of  vines 
remarkably  distinct;  we  can  follow  each  one  of  them  distinctly  for  sev- 
eral miles  over  the  undulating  ground  until  they  end  on  the  steeper 
slopes  of  the  hills,  or  run  into  the  little  canons  bordering  the  valley. 
El  Cajon  has  no  pretentious  to  being  a  town;  it  is  an  unassuming  and 
quiet  little  village,  whose  inhabitants,  when  they  speak  of  "  town," 
always  mean  San  Diego,  twenty  miles  away.  El  Cajon  has  a  dozen 
houses,  all  told,  one  of  each  kind  of  the  most  necessary  stores  and 
shops,  but  Wells,  Fargo  &  Co.  have  not  yet  discovered  this  quiet 
place.  Nevertheless,  it  has  two  hotels,  one  small  and  unassuming, 
which  runs  a  bus  to  the  station,  and  where  everybody  seems  to  meet; 
the  other,  large  and  pretentious,  both  as  to  bay-windows  and  name, — 
Corona  del  Cajon,  but  apparently  void  of  much  internal  life.  The 
railroad  to  El  Cajon  was  finished  only  some  eight  months  ago.  If  it 
had  been  running  three  years  ago  during  the  Southern  boom,  the 
valley  would  perhaps  to-day  be  rivaling  Pasadena  and  Riverside  in 
thrifty  farms  and  residences. 

El  Cajon  is  the  most  important  raisin-producing  district  in  San  Diego 
county,  and  so  exclusively  and  to  such  an  extent  have  the  raisin 
grapes  been  planted  here  that  we  hardly  see  anything  else.  Vine- 
yards as  far  as  we  can  see  in  all  directions;  vineyards  in  the  rolling 
bottom  of  the  valley;  vineyards  also  on  the  steeper  slopes  of  the 
hills;  nothing  else  than  Muscats  of  Alexandria  for  business,  and  only 
a  few  other  vines  around  the  cottages  for  home  use.  A  drive  through 
the  valley  brings  us  in  close  contact  with  what  we  saw  from  the 
more  elevated  station.  One  vineyard  joins  the  other,  with  only  a 
road  between,  and  there  are  no  rows  of  poplars  and  only  very  rarely 
a  row  of  eucalyptus  or  cypress.  The  view  is  open  on  every  side,  and 
from  every  point  we  can  see  over  the  valley  and  the  low  hills  surround- 
ing it.  The  vines  have  at  this  time  of  the  year  left  off  growing  and 
have  assumed  a  dark  green  color,  not  relieved  by  any  young  and  more 
vividly  colored  shoots.  The  grapes  hang  ripe  under  the  branches, 
and  the  trays  are  in  many  places  distributed  in  piles  over  the  field. 
There  are  two  packing-houses  in  the  valley;  the  one  now  under  way 
is  40  by  130  feet,  being  built  of  redwood,  and  apparently  most  care- 
fully put  up.  I  see  no  sign  of  irrigation  anywhere,  and  every  one 
tells  me  that  it  is  not  required.  But  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  a 
little  water  judiciously  used  would  have  kept  the  vines  growing  much 
longer,  and  would  have  naturally  increased  the  crop,  which  now  only 
averages  two  and  one-half  tons  of  green  grapes  per  acre.  There  are 
many  very  beautiful  mansions  in  the  valley,  surrounded  by  very 
praiseworthy  attempts  at  landscape  gardening,  but  the  absence  of 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  197 

water  for  irrigation  makes  itself  felt  everywhere,  both  in  regard  to  the 
size  of  the  plants  and  their  color.  Water  can  be  had  in  abundance  at 
a  depth  of  from  only  twelve  to  eighteen  feet,  and  windmills  and  reser- 
voirs would  do  much  towards  a  substitute  for  ditches.  As  we  drive 
through  the  valley  and  up  the  divide  between  El  Cajon  and  the  Sweet- 
water  valley,  the  view  is  very  attractive  indeed, — on  one  side  the  many 
well-kept  vineyards  of  El  Cajon,  on  the  other,  way  below  us,  the  narrow 
and  winding  valley  of  the  Sweetwater. 

The  Sweetwater  valley,  or  rather  continuation  of  valleys,  is  much 
smaller  than  El  Cajon,  perhaps  only  a  quarter  or  half  mile  wide,  but 
it  is  more  favorable  to  raisins,  grapes  or  vegetation  of  any  kind.  Olive 
orchards  of  good  size  trees,  vineyards  with  large  and  yet  growing  vines, 
cornfields  and  pastures,  and  the  winding  and  shaded  little  creek  in  the 
center  of  the  valley,  give  the  latter  a  freshness  and  beauty  not  sur- 
passed anywhere. 

On  our  way  on  the  railroad  as  well  as  through  El  Cajon  valley,  we 
have  frequently  passed  alongside  of  or  under  the  now  famous  Cuya- 
maca  flume,  carrying  water  to  San  Diego  and  Coronado.  This  flume 
is  a  fine  structure,  running  sometimes  in  the  ground,  sometimes  again 
on  elevated  trestle-work  over  the  ravines,  or  spanning  the  gaps 
between  lofty  hills.  The  whole  length  of  the  flume  is  thirty-six 
miles,  and  the  cost  of  construction  was  $112,000.  Its  size  is  five  feet, 
ten  inches  wide,  and  sixteen  inches  deep,  but  by  an  addition  of  two 
more  boards  the  depth  of  the  water  can  be  increased  to  three  feet,  ten 
inches, — a  large  body  of  water  for  this  country,  where  water  is  com- 
paratively scarce.  The  flume  heads  in  a  magnificent  dam  at  the  head 
of  San  Diego  river,  and  it  would  suffice  to  irrigate  quite  a  large  stretch 
of  country  if  the  people  were  only  willing  to  use  the  water.  But  the 
farmers  here  have  been  so  repeatedly  told  that  the  land  absolutely 
needs  no  irrigation,  and  indeed  would  be  ruined  by  the  same,  that 
the  most  of  them  now  fully  believe  this  to  be  the  case.  The  water 
is  therefore  not  diverted  anywhere  along  the  route  of  the  flume,  and 
even  in  El  Cajon  and  other  places,  where  the  crop  of  almost  every 
kind  of  fruit  would  be  doubled  by  judicious  irrigation,  no  effort  to  use 
the  same  is  made.  I  could  find  no- one  who  irrigated,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence the  company  that  owns"  the  flume  have  not  yet  put  in  the 
extra  boards  that  would  more  than  double  the  carrying  capacity  of  the 
flume. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  places  in  San  Diego  county  is  the  famous 
Sweetwater  dam.  It  takes  only  two  and  one-half  hours  to  visit  it  and 
return,  and  a  trip  to  it  will  repay  the  trouble.  We  start  out  southeast 
and  cross  to  National  City,  only  a  few  miles  from  San  Diego,  and 
really  a  suburb  of  that  town.  National  City  is  decidedly  new,  an 
attempt  at  something  grand,  which  it  will  take  sometime  to  finish. 
The  most  interesting  thing  there,  in  a  horticultural  sense,  is  the 
olive  orchards  of  Kimball  Brothers.  They  are  scattered  in  two  or 
three  places,  and  comprise  about  fifty  acres  altogether.  The  trees  are 
as  large  as  good  size  apple  trees,  bushy  and  silvery,  and  are  heavily 
laden  with  fruit.  The  land  around  each  tree  was  checked  up,  each 
tree  having  a  little  square  for  itself,  and  a  Chinaman  with  a  hoe  was 


198  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

busy  irrigating.  In  one  corner  of  the  orchard  was  a  large  circular 
reservoir  five  or  six  feet  high,  and  perhaps  twenty  feet  across,  to 
facilitate  the  irrigation.  The  train  starts  from  here  directly  in  among 
the  hills,  following  the  bed  of  the  Sweetwater  river.  The  bottom  land 
is  now  being  .settled  up  by  farmers  and  gardeners,  who  were  busy 
taking  their  first  lessons  in  irrigation.  The  plantations  of  course  are 
very  young,  the  irrigation  works  having  been  finished  quite  recently. 
At  Sunnyside  there  are  a  few  older  orchards  of  oranges  and  olives,  but, 
as  a  whole,  the  country  is  uncultivated. 

Five  minutes  more  and  we  are  at  the  dam.  There  is  no  station,  except 
a  little  wooden  platform,  and  we  had  to  scramble  over  a  rough  hill  to  get 
down  to  the  dam.  The  gorge  there  is  probably  one  hundred  feet 
wide  and  several  hundred  feet  deep,  with  almost  perpendicular  sides. 
There  is  no  other  vegetation  visible  than  grass  and  a  few  low  shrubs 
scattered  around.  It  is  a  most  excellent  place  for  a  dam.  The  Sweet- 
water  dam  is  built  almost  entirely  of  masonry  and  cement,  and,  both 
as  regards  construction  and  size,  is  one  of  the  very  best  in  the  world. 
It  is  built  in  the  shape  of  an  arch,  with  the  convex  part  up  stream, 
and  gives  an  impression  of  solidity  and  safety  not  always  found  in 
structures  of  this  kind.  The  masonry  dam  is  forty-six  feet  wide  at 
the  bottom,  at  the  top  twelve  feet.  The  length  of  the  top  is  340  feet, 
and  at  the  bottom  of  the  canon  the  base  of  the  dam  is  about  one  hun- 
dred feet,  while  the  height  is  about  ninety  feet  in  the  center.  At 
one  end  of  the  dam  is  a  wasteway  and  gates  for  letting  the  water  out 
in  case  of  a  flood.  The  gates  slide  on  an  inclined  plane,  and  consist 
simply  of  three-inch  boards  with  pegs  in  each  end,  which  are  caught 
by  a  hook  when  they  are  to  be  raised.  The  capacity  of  the  wasteway  is 
said  to  be  fifteen  hundred  cubic  feet  per  second,  or  as  much  as  the  Sweet- 
water  river  is  ever  likely  to  carry,  even  during  flood  time.  For  one  who 
is  accustomed  to  headgates  and  waterways  in  the  Fresno  canals,  this 
waterway  looks  very  small  indeed.  But  the  engineers  say  it  is  large 
enough,  and  we  suppose  they  must  be  right.  The  water  is  delivered 
through  a  large  iron  pipe  thirty-six  inches  in  diameter,  covered  for 
some  distance  down  the  canon  with  masonry.  For  29,807  feet,  this 
pipe  line  runs  down  the  valley  or  on  the  mesa  lands  adjoining  it.  It 
will  deliver  fifty  million  gallons  of  water  per  day,  and  can  now  irri- 
gate ten  thousand  acres  of  land.  The  whole  cost  of  construction  was 
$502,000,  and  the  time  consumed  in  building  was  two  years. 

The  reservoir,  as  it  now  stands,  is  a  magnificent  sheet  of  water  with 
tributary  watersheds  of  186  square  miles,  and  a  water  surface  of  about 
three  and  one-half  square  miles.  It  is  a  grand  illustration  of  the 
enterprise  of  the  San  Diego  capitalists,  of  the  skill  and  success  of  the 
California  engineers,  and  of  what  may  possibly  be  accomplished  on 
nearly  every  stream  in  San  Diego  county.  It  is  a  structure  of  which 
any  country  might  be  proud,  and  which  has  few  equals  and  no  supe- 
riors anywhere  in  the  world. 

On  our  way  back  we  meet  a  picnic  party  of  schoolgirls,  who  with 
their  teachers  have  spent  the  day  in  the  country.  They  fill  the  cars 
with  smiles  and  chat,  with  flowers  in  boquets  and  garlands,  in  baskets 
and  by  the  armful.  We  are  treated  to  flowers  and  to  beautiful  Muscat 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  199 

grapes  culled  from  the  vineyards, — enormous  bunches  and  berries 
almost  as  large  as  plums.  These  grapes  are  a  revelation  to  me,  grown 
here  within  the  reach  of  the  fogs  of  the  ocean,  and  irrigated  with 
water  from  the  dam  or  flume.  Verily,  I  have  never  seen  choicer 
grapes  anywhere,  and  I  am  satisfied  that  they  could  not  be  surpassed 
by  any  for  raisins.  What  a  fertile  country  this  will  be  when  irrigation 
is  better  understood  and  more  practiced.  Could  we  but  see  it  when  that 
time  comes. 

RIVERSIDE. 

There  is  no  place  in  Southern  California  where  the  effects  of  a  close 
and  intelligent  study  of  horticultural  matters  are  so  visible  as  in  River- 
side. Money  alone  may  build  villas  and  mansions;  but  the  intelligent 
and  ever  watchful  horticulturist  alone  can,  out  of  climate,  soil,  water 
and  capital,  produce  a  Riverside.  It  is  charming  beyond  description; 
it  must  be  seen  to  be  realized.  The  best  time  to  get  a  full  and  good 
view  of  Riverside  is  early  in  the  morning,  just  at  sunrise,  and  there  is 
no  better  place  to  view  it  from  than  the  hill  on  which  the  Hotel  Rubi- 
doux  was  to  have  been  built.  I  arose  before  sunrise,  and  struggled  up 
the  steep  hillside.  It  well  repaid  me  for  the  trouble,  as  few  more  beau- 
tiful views  can  be  had.  The  whole  settlement  can  be  taken  in  at 
a  glance, — the  town  close  by  imbedded  in  orange  groves  and  vine- 
yards, and  the  dense  verdure  of  the  country  stretching  for  ten  miles 
down  the  valley,  and  almost  connecting  with  the  yet  farther  off 
South  Riverside.  On  the  eastern  side  we  see  the  San  Bernardino 
Mountains,  with  the  "Old  Greyback,"  and  between  the  mountains  and 
the  settlements  a  lower  range  of  steep  hills  appear,  which  in  a  continu- 
ous range  either  bar  the  way  or  like  isolated  islands  shoot  boldly  up 
from  the  mesa  land. 

The  Riverside  colony  forms  a  continuous  settlement  along  the  mesa, 
skirting  the  river,  the  deep  green  of  the  orange  orchards  harmonizing 
splendidly  with  the  lighter  green  of  the  vineyards.  At  close  intervals 
there  are  houses  in  every  direction-,  with  the  bluest  smoke  rising 
straight  up  from  their  chimneys,  and  thence  carried  in  long,  tiny  bands 
and  columns  down  the  valley  just  level  with  the  tree  tops.  It  is  a  pity 
the  hotel  on  this  hill  was  never  finished  —  a  great  many  more  would 
then  have  enjoyed  the  almost  unequaled  view.  An  extension  of  the 
main  business  street  in  town  leads  up  to  this  hill.  On  both  sides  of 
the  street  there  are  fine  orange  orchards  and  neat  houses, — real  country 
homes,  sidewalks  of  cement  where  rows  of  fan-palms  take  the  place  of 
regular  shade  trees  along  their  sides.  The  business  portion  of  River- 
side is  confined  to  two  streets  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles.  If 
we  stand  in  the  center  of  this  crossing  we  take  it  all  in,  the  houses 
extending  a  block  and  a  half  in  the  four  different  directions.  Some  of 
the  houses  and  brick  blocks  are  very  large  and  expensive,  while  many 
again  are  smaller,  but  all  are  costly  and  elegant,  with  new  and  perhaps 
startling  ornamental  designs.  Whatever  Southern  California  does,  it 
does  well,  and  even  the  cheapest  structures  have  an  air  of  character 
and  taste  which  can  hardly  be  too  much  admired. 


200  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

When  one  speaks  of  Riverside  he  means  the  whole  settlement  that 
is  irrigated,  and  to  live  in  Riverside  may  mean  to  live  in  town,  or  it 
may  mean  a  suburban  residence  ten  miles  away.  In  the  latter  locality 
the  benefits  of  the  country  are  happily  combined  with  the  luxuries  of 
city  life.  Street  cars  run  from  the  center  of  the  business  part  of  town 
down  to  the  end  of  the  settlement.  It  is  a  cheap  way  to  view  the  set- 
tlement to  board  one  of  these  early  cars.  You  can  see  as  much  as  any 
one  may  care  to  see,  but  of  course  cannot  stop  and  examine.  The 
whole  drive  is  one  not  to  be  matched  anywhere  else.  From  the  mo- 
ment you  leave  town  you  pass  orchards  and  vineyards  separated  from 
each  other  by  only  a  road  or  cypress  hedge.  Every  foot  of  ground  is 
taken  up.  The  main  effort  of  all  the  settlers  appears  to  be  to  make 
everything  attractive,  from  the  very  sidewalk  to  the  elaborate  garden 
and  the  villa,  Nearer  town,  every  street  has  sidewalks  of  cement,  and 
bordering  them  are  continuous  hedges  of  cypress  trimmed  in  various 
styles,  and  in  front  of  every  house  are  lawns  and  plats  of  shrubbery 
and  flowers,  as  neatly  kept  as  if  visitors  were  expected  day  or  night. 
Some  of  the  villas  partake  of  the  character  of  mansions,  with  towers, 
balconies  and  painted  windows,  while  here  and  there  in  some  of  the 
finest  orchards  are  yet  seen  some  of  the  first  houses  built,  small  and 
unpretentious.  The  individual  tastes  of  the  owners  are  clearly  dis- 
cernible. One  has  a  row  of  palms  running  along  his  sidewalk,  an- 
other has  palms  and  grevilleas,  while  others  prefer  the  pepper  and  gum. 
The  manner  of  trimming  the  hedges  is  charming;  it  has  here  become 
quite  an  art.  Some  hedges  have  square,  others  roofed  tops,  and  at 
every  corner  there  is  a  little  pillar  of  cypress  with  diamond  or  globular 
top,  not  at  all  artificial  or  stiff. 

The  vast  majority  of  the  plantations  consist  of  orange  groves.  The 
color  of  the  trees  is  splendid,  every  leaf  being  bright  and  shining,  and 
there  is  no  sign  of  smut  or  scale.  The  large  and  upright  Seedlings 
are  easily  distinguished  from  the  smaller  but  bushy  Navels.  The 
tendency  is  now  to  plant  mostly  the  latter,  and  most  of  the  old  Seed- 
ling trees  are  being  budded  over.  The  original  Navel  tree,  which  is 
the  prime  cause  of  the  prosperity  of  Riverside  and  of  the  fame  of  its 
oranges,  is  yet  standing  by  a  modest  cottage,  which  appears  not  to 
have  kept  pace  with  the  times.  The  tree  is  small,  perhaps  twelve  feet 
high,  having  been  constantly  cut  back  for  buds.  From  this  tree  have 
sprung  all  the  rest.  No  other  Navel  tree  imported  from  Brazil  or 
Australia  resembles  it  in  quality  of  fruit  or  in  bearing  capacity.  It  is 
probably  a  chance  "sport"  originally  imported  by  the  Agricultural  De- 
partment at  Washington,  its  companion  trees  being  different  in  the  most 
essential  points  which  make  this  variety  so  valuable  and  so  famous. 
This  beautiful  and  choice  orange,  now  generally  known  as  the  ' '  Wash- 
ington Navel,"  is  slightly  oblong  or  egg-shaped,  and  the  skin  is  very 
smooth,  with  no  ridges  at  the  poles,  the  latter  being  characteristic  of 
the  other  Navel  varieties.  The  crop  of  Navels  this  year  is  good. 
Many  growers  expect  from  three  to  four  boxes  to  the  tree,  and,  as  each 
box  brings  from  three  to  four  dollars,  it  is  evident  the  business  pays. 
The  valuable  and  permanent  improvements  everywhere  show  this  to 
be  the  case;  the  account  books  of  the  grower  need  not  be  searched  to 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  201 

demonstrate  it.  Here  and  there  we  also  see  a  lemon  orchard  with  its 
larger  trees  of  a  different  green.  A  few  years  ago  many  lemon  orchards 
were  dug  up,  as  no  one  understood  the  secret  of  saving  the  lemons  till 
the  warm  season,  when  alone  they  can  bring  a  good  price.  But  at  last 
one  of  the  growers  wrung  the  secret  from  Nature,  and  now  buys  up  all 
the  young  lemons  he  can  find  and  stores  them  away  to  be  used  from 
six  to  ten  months  later,  just  when  they  are  most  in  demand.  In  com- 
pany with  that  courteous  horticulturist,  the  editor  of  the  Riverside 
Press,  E.  W.  Holmes,  we  visited  this  gentleman,  G.  W.  Garcelon.  To 
him  is  due  much  credit  for  having  discovered  the  process.  He  pre- 
sented us  with  lemons  of  the  small  and  proper  size  that  had  been 
picked  green  eight  months  ago.  They  were  equal  to  the  best  imported, 
both  as  to  smallness  of  size,  acidity,  thinness  of  skin  and  quality  of 
juice.  These  lemons  bring  now  five  dollars  per  box,  at  which  price 
lemon  culture  proves  more  profitable  than  that  of  the  orange. 

The  only  variety  that  should  be  planted  is  the  Lisbon  lemon,  the 
Eureka  having  too  bitter  a  peel,  and  the  much  recommended  Villa 
Franca  being  round  and  thus  unacceptable.  We  passed  several  vine- 
yards, the  Muscat  vines  being  large  and  the  vineyards  well  kept.  The 
grapes  are  just  ripening,  but  it  will  be  some  two  weeks  yet  before  they 
are  ready  to  cut.  The  only  variety  grown  here  is  the  Muscat  of  Alex- 
andria, the  real  Gordo  Blanco  being  unknown,  or  at  least  not  generally 
planted. 

The  far-famed  Magnolia  avenue  is  near  at  hand.  The  center  is  occu- 
pied by  a  continuous  row  of  old  pepper  trees,  with  gracefully  drooping 
branches,  under  which  the  cars  run.  The  outside  rows  are  different  in 
various  places,  generally  palms  with  alternating  grevilleas,  or  gum  or 
pepper  trees.  The  custom  now  is  to  replace  the  outside  trees  with 
palms,  and  many  of  the  stately  gums  are  being  cut  away.  Beyond  the 
sidewalks  are  the  trimmed  cypress  hedges,  and  behind  them  orange 
orchards,  only  interrupted  by  open  lawns  and  gardens  partially  hiding 
the  tasty  dwelling-houses  of  the  horticulturists.  All  that  we  see,  now 
so  luxuriant  and  beautiful,  is  the  effect  of  water  on  the  otherwise  bar- 
ren plains.  Everything  is  irrigated  several  times  a  year  by  means  of 
flowing  water  brought  from  distant  points,  from  the  mountain  canons, 
or  from  the  artesian  wells  in  the  ritfer  bottom  higher  up,  several  miles 
away. 

The  canals  are  all  on  the  highest  ground,  and  are  dug  on  technical 
principles.  There  is  no  washing  and  no  filling  up,  no  broken-down 
gates  and  overflowing  and  stagnant  ponds.  Some  ditches  are  cemented, 
and  look  magnificently  clean,  without  any  weeds  or  mud.  The  water 
in  them  is  like  the  water  of  a  spring,  clear  and  pellucid.  In  course  of 
time  all  the  ditches  will  be  cemented,  the  cost  for  doing  the  work  being 
paid  for  in  a  short  time  by  the  water  saved  and  the  absence  of  the 
necessary  cleaning  out. 

Riverside  is  indeed  to  be  envied  its  Chinatown.  The  latter  was, 
some  years  ago,  moved  a  mile  from  town  into  a  hollow,  and  now  every 
house  there  is  surrounded  by  cypress  hedges  and  windbreaks  of  cypress 
and  gum.  Moreover,  every  house  there  is  connected  with  the  sewer- 
age system,  and  the  usual  smell  is  not  noticed  on  the  outside.  Indeed, 


202  THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 

one  can  drive  by  and  not  know  the  nature  of  the  town,  for  it  looks 
like  any  other  country  village,  almost  hidden  in  evergreens. 

In  a  few  weeks  the  raisin  harvest  will  commence,  and  from  that  time 
on  Riverside,  along  its  whole  extent,  will  be  life  and  bustle.  When 
the  grapes  are  all  in,  the  oranges  will  be  ready  for  harvesting,  and  the 
country  will  again  boast  of  its  thousands  of  carloads  of  the  golden  fruit. 

REDLANDS. 

We  have  reached  the  object  of  our  journey  in  the  upper  end 
of  the  San  Bernarnino  valley.  One  of  the  features  of  South  Cali- 
fornia, not  Southern  California,  as  we  in  the  center  all  used  to 
say,  is  the  motor  roads,  not  electric  motors,  but  regular  little  steam 
engines,  that  will  pull  you  anywhere,  and  which  will  not  shock  you 
with  anything  except  perhaps  with  their  smoke.  Such  motor  roads 
lead  almost  everywhere,  connecting  the  outlying  colonies  way  up  in 
the  mesa  with  the  headquarters  on  the  regular  railroad.  And  these 
motor  roads  are  neither  neglected,  nor  do  they  go  begging  for  custom- 
ers and  freight.  They  are  as  much  or  more  patronized  even  than  the 
regular  railroads,  and  they  pay  well.  The  cause  of  this  is  evident.  They 
are  more  accommodating;  they  can  without  inconvenience  stop  wherever 
required,  and  passengers  get  on  or  off  at  almost  every  corner.  The 
little  train  stops  with  equal  readiness  at  the  call  in  front  of  the  rich 
man's  villa,  to  enable  him  and  his  family  to  embark,  as  at  the  poor 
man's  garden,  to  allow  him  to  get  on  with  a  load  of  greens  or  with  a 
basket  of  eggs.  Thus  managed,  it  rushes  along  with  short  and  fre- 
quent stops,  always  full  of  passengers  and  freight. 

Going  up  the  San  Bernardino  valley  from  Riverside  is  a  trip  that  no 
one  should  neglect.  It  takes  us  through  one  of  the  best  improved 
parts  of  South  California,  through  a  veritable  garden  spot,  with  a 
radius  of  six  or  seven  miles.  From  Riverside  we  pass  for  several 
miles  over  the  level  mesa  land,  just  brought  into  cultivation  through 
the  new  Gage  canal  system.  Over  two  thousand  acres  have  been 
planted  here  within  the  last  two  years  to  oranges,  lemons  and  vines, 
and  the  fine  and  regularly  planted  trees  with  the  large  distances 
between  show  us  how  much  the  new  settlers  have  been  able  to  profit 
from  the  experience  of  the  older  ones.  For  several  miles  there  are 
young  plantations,  each  with  its  neat  and  substantial  residence  and 
outhouses,  indicating  that  the  settlers  mostly  are  people  of  some  means 
and  of  much  refinement  and  taste, — just  the  class  of  people  that 
we  all  would  choose  for  our  nearest  neighbors.  Everywhere  are  school- 
houses  of  artistic  designs,  most  magnificent  ones  in  the  older  settle- 
ments, smaller  but  tasty  ones  in  those  of  almost  yesterday.  As  we 
pass  along  the  mesa,  the  upper  San  Bernardino  valley,  closed  in  by 
steep  and  lofty  mountains,  lies  on  our  right,  and  in  front  the  Santa 
Ana  river  courses  through  the  center  of  the  valley,  with  its  vast 
1  broad  river  bottom  covered  with  wild  vegetation,  pastures  or  cultivated 
fields.  We  cross  several  ditches,  one  laid  in  cement,  with  the  water 
running  in  them  as  clear  as  that  in  the  washbowl. 

Once  across  the  river  bottom  we  are  almost  directly  at  Colton  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad.  The  first  thing  that  attracts  our  attention 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  203 

is  the  beautiful  plantation  on  the  railroad  reservation.  Fine  green 
lawns,  fountains,  beds  of  evergreens  and  flowers,  the  whole  inclosed  in 
pepper  trees,  gives  the  traveler  immediately  the  impression  that  some- 
thing beautiful  in  the  way  of  gardening  can  be  accomplished,  where 
there  is  only  a  will  and  a  taste.  Such  beautiful  places  everywhere  in 
the  South  show  that  the  people  who  came  here,  came  not  alone  to 
make  money,  but  also  to  enjoy  life  and  to  cultivate  those'pleasures  and 
occupations  which  help  to  prolong  and  beautify  the  same. 

From  Colton  up  to  San  Bernardino  the  whole  country  is  settled  up 
and  resembles  the  outskirts  of  a  large  city,  where  the  business  men 
have  their  suburban  residences.  The  level  and  gradually  sloping 
mesa  is  dotted  over  with  little  hills  and  knolls,  just  the  place  for  a  resi- 
dence. Every  such  place  has  been  taken  advantage  of,  and  fine  resi- 
dences with  towers,  balconies  and  airy  awnings  crown  every  little 
eminence,  each  one  through  its  peculiar  situation  seemingly  domin- 
ating the  valley. 

San  Bernardino  has  been  greatly  benefited  by  the  boom.  The  old 
and  the  new  are  there  in  strong  contrast,  the  new  decidedly  predomi- 
nating. Magnificent  brick  blocks  grace  the  principal  business  streets, 
and  the  nearest  streets  crossing  them,  blocks  that  must  have  cost  large 
suras  of  money,  and  which  for  design  and  substantial  structure  can 
nowhere  be  surpassed  in  any  city  of  this  size*  The  fine  large  hotels 
erected  lately  are  kept  up  with  style  and  even  splendor.  The  large 
Stewart  House  is  not  inferior  to  the  best  town  hotel  that  can  be  seen 
anywhere,  and  its  interior  arrangements,  with  a  large  covered  court, 
are  most  admirable.  My  stay  in  San  Bernardino  was  only  too  short ; 
a  long  stroll  around  town  and  a  little  longer  shake  hands  with  the 
veteran  journalist  and  horticulturist,  I,.  M.  Holt,  took  all  the  time  I 
had  to  spare. 

From  San  Bernardino  to  Redlands  is  but  half  an  hour's  ride  through 
the  bottom  lands  of  the  Santa  Ana  river.  We  approach  rapidly  the 
upper  end  of  the  valley,  where  the  elevated  mesa  spreads  out  all  around 
like  a  perfect  atnpitheater,  backed  by  the  loftiest  mountains  in  Southern 
California.  The  mesa  is  now  in  close  view,  and  Redlands,  I^ugonia, 
Terracina,  Crafton,  all  different  points  of  the  same  settlement,  lie  in 
front  of  us  at  an  elevation  of  about  fifteen  hundred  feet  above  the  sea, 
like  a  map  or  extensive  panorama,  where  roads,  orchards  and  houses 
are  so  clearly  and  distinctly  seen  that  they  can  be  observed  at  a  glance. 
The  mesa  land  here  slopes  about  four  hundred  feet  to  the  mile,  and 
the  different  orchards  or  settlements  lie  apparently  one  above  the 
other,  all  in  full  view.  If  I  am  asked  for  the  place  in  this  part  of  the 
country  with  the  finest  view,  with  the  freshest  air,  with  the  purest 
water,  and  with  the  coolest  breezes,  and  where  business  and  the  com- 
forts of  life  can  be  combined,  I  will  say,  and  say  it  again,  Redlands. 
In  all  these  points  there  is  nothing  here  that  surpasses  it,  and  few  are 
the  places  indeed  that  even  can  pretend  to  equal  it.  From  whatever 
point  we  stand,  be  it  at  the  lower  end  of  the  railroad  depot,  at  any 
orchard  or  home  in  the  center  of  the  settlement,  or  at  the  upper  end 
close  to  the  rolling  hills,  from  every  point  we  see  every  other  point, 
some  below,  some  above  us,  all  equally  distinct.  And  this  extensive 
and  magnificent  view,  that  requires  no  tedious  and  tiresome  climbing 


204  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

to  see,  extends  away  down  the  valley  for  sixty  miles,  over  slightly 
rolling  hills,  over  level  mesas  with  their  dark-green  orchards  and  vine- 
yards, over  the  steeper  hills,  over  the  lofty  Sierra  Madre  range  in  the 
northwest.  If  we  turn  to  the  right  we  are  immediately  met  by  the 
snowy  peaks  and  the  bare  walls  of  the  San  Bernardino  range,  here  and 
there  cat  by  the  canons  and  gorges  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Santa  Ana 
river. 

The  business  part  of  Redlands  is  as  neat  and  tasty  as  any, — brick 
blocks  and  cement  sidewalks,  horse  cars,  and  water  under  pressure. 

No  explanation  is  required  to  be  made  of  the  quality  of  the  Red- 
lands  climate  and  soil.  A  trip  over  the  settlement  will  reveal  all  to 
any  one  with  open  eyes.  Orange  orchards,  young  of  course,  but 
thrifty,  on  every  side,  alternating  with  Muscat  vineyards,  according  to 
the  taste  of  the  owner;  beautiful  homes  of  the  horticulturists,  the 
stately  mansions  of  the  bank  presidents  and  those  that  became  wealthy 
quickly,  and  the  grand  view  common  to  all, — these  are  some  of  the 
good  things  this  settlement  enjoys.  The  water  for  irrigation  is  all 
under  pressure,  either  coming  to  the  surface  in  open  flues  or  in  iron 
pipes.  The  orange  orchards  are  being  irrigated  everywhere,  in  a  way 
which  should  make  a  San  Joaquin  valley  man  stare.  Iron  pipes  are 
laid  all  over  the  orchard,  and  at  the  beginning  of  every  row  of  trees 
there  is  a  faucet.  These  faucets  are  all  opened  at  the  same  time,  and  a 
tiny  stream  of  water  issues  forth  and  runs  on  each  side  of  the  young 
orange  trees  down  to  the  other  end  of  the  check.  It  is  left  to  run  for 
several  days  at  a  time.  At  the  other  end  of  the  check  the  water  is  not 
wasted,  but  runs  into  a  little  wooden  spout  at  every  row  of  trees  and 
through  the  same  into  a  cement  ditch  which  carries  the  water  to 
another  place.  The  system  of  irrigation  is  simply  perfect;  if  it  were 
not  so,  the  land  could  not  be  irrigated.  With  this  system  there  is  no 
waste,  no  weeds,  no  malaria,  no  hoeing  nor  other  work  of  any  kind. 
Irrigation  is  here  as  easy  as  the  washing  of  your  hands  in  a  patent 
washstand:  you  open  the  faucet  and  let  the  water  run.  The  general 
opinion  by  people  not  acquainted  with  the  colony  is  that  water  here  is 
very  scarce;  this  is  a  mistake.  There  is  water  enough  to  irrigate  all 
the  land;  most  of  it  is  now  only  running  to  waste  to  the  sea;  to  be 
utilized  it  must  only  be  stored.  The  Bear  valley  reservoir,  when  per- 
fected, as  it  soon  will  be,  will  hold  water  enough  to  irrigate  over 
twenty-six  thousand  acres  of  ground,  which  is  about  all  the  irrigable 
land  tributary  to  Redlands.  There  are  other  reservoir  sites  in  the 
mountains,  and  the  possibilities  of  future  irrigation  can  hardly  be 
comprehended.  Although  young,  only  four  3^ears  old,  the  upper  San 
Bernardino  colonies  produce  already  considerable  quantities  of  fruit. 
Six  thousand  acres  are  now  under  cultivation,  eight  hundred  of  which 
are  in  Muscat  grapes,  the  Balance  mostly  in  oranges  and  other  fruits. 
Last  year  they  produced  fifty  carloads  of  grapes  and  forty  carloads  of 
raisins,  and  altogether  about  149  carloads  of  fruit,  dried  or  fresh.  No 
better  showing  could  be  expected  of  any  place,  and  there  is  no  better 
advertisement  of  the  resources  of  the  country, 

I  have  yet  a  thing  to  add,  a  thing  to  praise.  Everywhere  in  the 
South  magnificent  drives  are  laid  out,  avenues  are  planted  with  shade 
trees,  evergreens  and  palms,  street  cars  take  you  everywhere,  and  the 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  205 

comforts  of  pedestrians  and  riders  are  always  assured.  The  roads  are 
all  sprinkled,  and  the  dust  is  an  unknown  quantity  except  in  by-lanes 
and  corners,  where  the  sprinkler  cannot  reach.  Riverside  sprinkles 
the  whole  of  her  business  streets,  and  her  Magnolia  avenue  effectively 
and  continually  for  about  ten  miles  down  the  valley.  Other  places  do 
the  same,  perhaps  only  not  to  as  liberal  an  extent.  In  many  places 
the  tired  pedestrian  finds  little  wooden  benches  to  rest  on  under  a 
shady  tree,  close  to  a  fountain  of  drinking  water,  all  placed  there  by 
the  kind  society,  W.  C.  T.  U.  Comparisons  are  not  in  place;  but  how 
many  times  I  have  wished  such  a  thing  had  been  met  with  in  some 
other  places  I  know  of  where  the  sun  is  just  as  hot,  and  where  the  dust 
is  just  as  deep. 

AN  HOUR  IN  A  PACKING-HOUSE. 

The  following  sketch  of  a  Fresno  packing-house,  where  already  cured 
raisins  are  bought  and  packed,  may  prove  interesting  to  those  of  my 
readers  who  have  not  had  time  or  opportunity  to  visit  any  similar  estab- 
lishment. The  same4dad_of ...work  is  going  on  in  each  packing-house, 
whether  it  be  large  or  small,  except  that  the  number  of  hands  are 
varied.  In  the  two  or  three  largest  packing-houses  in  Fresno,  as  many 
as  four  hundred  hands  are  sometimes  employed  at  one  time  when  the 
work  is  pressing  ;  as  it  slackens,  less  hands  are  used.  These.large_£ijy 
packing-houses  are  all  situated  close  to  the  railroad ;  they  buy  the 
raisins~already  cured  and  dried  from  the  colonists,  who  bring  them  in 
sweatboxes  to  town.  The  time  of  the  greatest  activity  is  from  the  last 
week  in  August  to  October  i5th.  The  largest  of  these  city  packers  are 
Messrs.  Cook  &  Langley ,  who  own  packing-houses  both  in  Riverside  and 
Fresno ;  Shacht,  Lemcke  &  Steiner,  successors  to  George  W.  Meade, 
the  oldest  packing-house  in  Fresno,  superintended!  by  H.  W.  Shram ; 
Chas.  Leslie  &  Co.,  Griffin  &  Skelley,  etc. 

The  pioneer  packing  company  of  Fresno,  known  as  the  Fresno  Raisin 
&  Fruit  Packing  Company,  is  doing  at  this  time  a  large  business.  Every 
day  five  or  six  carloads  of  raisins  are  sent  away,  while  a  string  of  from 
twenty  to  thirty,  two  and  four  horse,  teams  are  waiting  outside  of  the 
weighing  shed  to  have  their  raisins  weighed  and  received.  These  raisins 
come  both  from  large  and  small  vineyards  from  all  over  the  country,  but 
principally  from  the  colonies,  where  they  are  the  products  of  twenty- 
acre  vineyards.  Some  of  the  best  raisins  in  fact  came  from  the  smallest 
vineyards,  where  they  had  the  best  care,  and  where  the  owner  has 
given  the  vineyard  all  his  time.  Mr.  H.  W.  Shram,  the  superintendent 
of  this  large  and  old  packing-house,  has  had  years  of  experience  in  the 
packing  business,  and  has  followed  the  Fresno  raisin  business  from  its 
infancy.  As  soon  as  the  raisin  boxes  are  unloaded  they  are  immedi- 
ately weighed.  It  takes  eight  men  to  attend  to  this  part  of  the  busi- 
ness, one  weighing  and  one  clerk  to  keep  accounts.  The  dried  wine 
grapes,  such  as  Zinfandel,  Malagas,  and  even  Sultanas,  are  immediately 
wheeled  into  the  stemmer-house  to  be  separated  from  the  stems  and 
cleaned.  This  stemmer  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  State,  and  the  only 
one  of  its  kind  as  regards  construction.  It  stems,  cleans  and  assorts, 
in  from  three  to  four  different  grades,  sixty  tons  of  raisins  a  day.  Nine 


206  THE;  RAISIN   INDUSTRY. 

men  are  working  this  machine,  some  feeding,  others  pushing  wide  but 
shallow  boxes  under  the  spouts,  others  again  wheeling  them  away 
when  full.  The  steam  engine  of  ten  horse-power  and  boiler  are  fired 
principally  with  separated  stems,  refuse  raisins,  and  stones  of  peaches 
and  apricots.  The  separated  dried  grapes  are  packed  and  shipped  in 
eighty -pound  sacks,  and  go  in  this  way  to  the  East,  or  even  to  Europe. 
Every  day  one  or  two  carloads  of  these  dried  grapes  are  shipped.  The 
Muscatel  la.y.ers,  however,  go  first  to  the  sweating-room,  before  any- 
thing is  done  with  them.  This  sweating-room  is  one  hundred  by  fifty 
feet,  and  has  the  walls  and  floor  filled  around  with  one  foot  in  thickness 
of  sawdust,  so  as  to  prevent  the  outside  air  from  entering.  This  sweating 
room  is  constantly  filled  with  raisin  boxes  from  floor  to  ceiling,  and 
seldom  contains  less  than  forty  tons  of  raisins  at  one  time.  It  takes 
I  from  ten  to  thirty  days  to  equalize  the  moisture  in  the  raisins  as  well 
as  to  properly  soften  the  stems  so  that  the  grapes  will  not  fall  off. 
This  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  If  it  is  not  done  the  stems  will 
break  and  the  berries  fall  off,  and  instead  of  a  first-class  layer  raisin  we 
would  only  get  a  first-class  loose. 
,  After  having  sweated  for  several  weeks  the  raisins  are  brought  out  to 
*  be  assorted.  We  see  several  rows  of  oblong  tables,  each  one  with  a 
border  around  like  a  deep  and  large  tray,  and  with  a  hole  at  each  end 
in  which  the  loose  raisins  are  pushed.  It  takes  eighteen  of  these  tables 
to  receive  the  grapes  to  be  assorted,  and  as  it  also  takes  six  girls  at 
\l  each  table,  it  is  evident  the  work  is  one  of  great  importance.  Only 
girls  are  used,  as  boys  and  men  could  not  as  properly  do  the  work,  rt 
takes  a  girl's  nimble  fingers  to  handle  the  raisins,  so  that  none  break. 
They  are  also  more  patient,  and  are,  in  every  way,  suited  for  the  work. 
As  the  raisins  are  beiffgfassorted,  the  different  grades  are  clipped  from 
the  same  bunches,  and  placed  in  different  trays.  Thus  one  and  the 
same  bunch  may  contain  four  different  grades  of  raisins.  Each  one  is 
separated  at  these  tables,  to  make  different  brands  of  raisins.  The 
trays,  with  five  pounds  of  raisins  each  as  they  leave  the  graders,  are 
placed  in  large  piles  on  the  floor,  and  are  from  there  taken  away  at 
leisure,  first  to  be  packed  and  afterwards  to  the  press.  This  is  a 
department  of  its  own.  It  takes  great  experience  to  press  the  raisins 
just  so  much,  that  they  will  look  well,  but  not  so  much  as  to 
burst.  A  broken  raisin  will  sugar  and  spoil,  and  would  cause  com- 
v  plaint  and  dissatisfaction.  The  public  is  constantly  being  educated 
P\  as  to  what  fine  raisins  are,  and  now  wants  only  the  best.  Each  tray 
is  pressed,  and  it  takes  four  trays  to  make  up  a  box  of  twenty  pounds. 
A  tray  is  placed  over  the  box,  the  sliding  bottom  is  pulled  out,  and  the 
whole  cake  of  raisins  with  paper  and  all  drop  in  the  box  below. 

After  the  raisins  are  assorted  they  have  to  be  packed.     Twenty  girls 
V?are  occupied  with  this,  the  most  pleasant,  but  also  the  most  skillful, 
"^  work  in  the  packing-house.     No  bad  raisins  go  in  here,  and  if  any 
there  should  be,  they  are  separated  and  placed  with  a  lower  grade,  as 
even  one  or  two  raisins  would   spoil  an  otherwise  good  box.     This 
requires  a  great  deal  of  care  and  attention,  but  the  girls  are  being  edu- 
cated, and  the  same  ones  are  re-engaged  from  year  to  year.     Fresno  is 
getting  an  army  of  girls  educated  for  the  business,  and  we  find  much 


'j 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  207 

less  trouble  now  to  get  the  raisins  well  packed  than  a  few  years  ago, 
when  everything  was  comparatively  new.  Now  there  is  hardly  a  girl  / 
in  any  of  the  colonies  who  does  not  know  something  about  raisin-  j 
packing,  and  who  is  able  to  make  good  wages  during  packing  time.  ) 
Several  cents  a  tray  are  paid  for  packing,  and  many  girls  earn  two 
dollars  a  day,  while  none  earn  less  than  one  dollar  a  day.  The  first 
quality  raisins  are  packed  under  the  Lion  Brand,  while  the  second 
quality  goes  by  the  name  of  the  Golden  Gate.  Both  brands  are  equally 
popular  and  are  readily  sold.  The  loose  raisins  are  as  important  as 
the  bunches  and  layers.  The  American  housewife  has  learned  that 
she  gets  more  for  her  money  if  she  buys  loose  raisins  than  if  she 
buys  layers,  which  always  contain  a  large  percentage  of  stems.  Loose 
raisins  are  therefore  now  very  popular.  The  loose  raisins  have  all  been 
sweated,  and  the  best  of  them  have  come  from  large,  fine  bunches, 
from  which  they  have  simply  dropped  off,  and  magnificent  they  look 
indeed  as  they  are  separated  and  graded  into  several  grades,  the  largest 
of  course  to  make  the  very  choicest  brands.  The  process  of  packing 
is  quite  different  from  that  of  packing  layers.  In  loose,  the  boxes  are 
simply  filled  with  fifteen  pounds  of  loose  raisins  ;  then  a  tray  contain- 
ing five  pounds,  and  which  has  been  faced,  is  placed  on  top,  this 
making  up  twenty-pound  boxes. 

The  facing  is  a  most  important  and  interesting  work.  It  takes 
from  forty  to  fifty  girls  to  do  it,  and  only  expert  hands  are  allowed  at 
the  facing  tables.  The  facing  consists  in  placing  large,  fine  and  flatted 
raisins  in  layers  on  top  of  the  box,  as  an  advertisement  that  the  con- 
tents underneath  are  equally  carefully  assorted  and  choice.  A  careful 
and  skillful  facer  can  face  forty  boxes  a  day,  while  from  twenty  to  thirty 
boxes  is  a  low  average.  Mr.  Shram  buys  raisins  and  dried  grapes  from 
every  one  who  has  any  that  are  really  choice.  For  Feherzagos  three 
to  three  and  one-half  cents  are  paid,  for  Malagas  four  cents,  and  for 
Muscatels  three  and  one-half  to  five  cents,  according  to  quality.  All 
the  work  in  the  packing-house  is  done  bv  piece  work,  and  from  two  to 
five  cents  are  paid  for  different  qualities  of  tne  work,  such  as  assorting, 
picking  over,  picking  and  facing.  Four  hundred  girls  and  boys  are 
daily  employed.  The  present  raisin-  pack,  Mr.  Shram  affirms,  is  the 
best  of  any  he  has  ever  handled.  They  are  shipped  to  every  large  town  in 
the  Kast,  and  are  constantly  increasing  in  demand.  Besides  raisins, 
Mr.  Shram  handles  peaches,  figs,  apricots,  and  in  fact  any  dried  fruit 
we  have.  Tons  and  tons  of  Adriatic  figs  are  brought  from  the  colonies 
every  day  at  six  cents  per  pound,  an  enormous  price  when  we  consider 
the  yield  of  a  fig  tree.  But,  says  Mr.  Shram,  they  are  in  demand,  and 
as  long  as  we  can  sell  them  again  when  packed  and  sweated  to  advan- 
tage we  can  afford  to  pay  a  good  price. 

When  sufficient  boxes  are  packed,  they  are  loaded  in  cars  and  made 
up  into  trains  exclusively  loaded  with  raisins.  The  various  packing- 
houses combine  to  do  this.  Generally  during  the  packing  season  two 
such  train-loads  are  sent  away  every  week,  each  one  consisting  of  from 
ten  to  fifteen  cars  of  raisins,  each  car  containing  one  thousand  boxes. 
Five  hundred  and  thirty  such  cars  were  shipped  from  Fresno  last  year 
(1889).  Some  of  the  packers  packed  one  hundred  thousand  boxes  each. 


RAISIN  GROWERS  AND  THEIR  VINEYARDS. 

The  following  sketches  are  intended  to  convey  to  those  not  living  in 
the  raisin  districts  of  our  State  an  idea  of  the  men  who  have  made  a 
specialty  of  the  raisin  industry, — men  jhrough.  whose  experiences  and 
intelligent  work  otiiers  are  now  prorTGfig. 

~  While'TEe  raisin  growers  and  packers  can  now  be  counted  by  the 
hundred,  and  while  all  of  them  have  in  some  way  contributed  to  the 
development  of  the  industry,  and  as  such  deserve  to  be  mentioned  in 
t"he  annals  of  this  industry,  it  has  only  been  practicable  to  here  refer  to 
a  few  of  the  most  prominent.  Where  exactly  to  draw  the  line  was  not 
easy  to  decide,  and  my  intention  has  been  not  to  slight  or  neglect  any 
one,  and  should  any  one  find  himself  omitted  he  should  account  for  it 
through  my  ignorance  of  real  facts.  I  should  especially  have  wished 
to  add  to  these  short  notes  more  extensive  accounts  of  the  work  and 
vineyards  of  R.  B.  Blowers  of  Woodland,  of  the  late  G.  G.  Briggs  of 
Davisville,  and  of  Robert  McPherson  of  McPherson,  but  I  have  not 
been  able  to  procure  the  necessary  data.  These  three  gentlemen  have 
all  greatly  contributed  to  the  development  of  the  high  standing  of  the 
raisin  industry  in  this  State. 

G.  G.  BRIGGS. 

/Mr.  Briggs  was  the  first  large  raisin-grower  in  the  State,  and  owned 
vineyards  in  both  Solano  and  Yolo  counties  aggregating  seven  hundred 
acres  or  more.  Subirrigation  by  means  of  perforated  pipes,  in  which 
the  water  was  made  to  circulate  under  pressure,  was  first  tried  extensively 
in  Mr.  Briggs'  vineyard  at  Davisville,  by  which  means  the  grape  crop 
was  almost  doubled.  Later  on  Mr.  Briggs  planted  extensively  in  the 
Washington  Colony  at  Fresno,  but  he  died  before  his  vineyard  there 
came  into  bearing.  He  is  said  to  have  imported  raisin  grapes  direct 
from  Spain,  and  a  grape  now  growing  in  the  vineyard  of  G.  E.  Free- 
man at  Fresno  is  said  to  be  of  that  variety.  It  resembles  the  Muscat 
of  Alexandria  in  growth,  but  the  berries  are  those  of  the  Gordo 
Blanco.  Mr.  Briggs  advised  to  give  the  raisin-vines  more  room,  and 
following  his  ideas  several  vineyards  as  well  as  his  own  were  planted 
with  the  vines  ten  by  sixteen  feet. 

R.  B.  BLOWERS. 

R.  B.  Blowers  of  Woodland,  Yolo  county,  planted  his  first  vines  in 
N  1863,  and  produced  his  first  raisins  in  1867.  From*  1870  to  1873  he 
planted  the  principal  part  of  his  vineyard.  He  was  the  first  one  in 
California  to  do  any  really  careful  packing,  and  he  may  justly  be  said 
to  be  the  father  of  the  raisin  industry  in  this  State.  Mr.  Blowers  was 
the  first  to  irrigate  the  raisin-vines  by  means  of  pumping  and  flooding, 
for  which  purpose  he  constructed  his  afterwards  so  famous  well.  The 
first  successful  raisin  dryer  was  invented  and  built  by  him  at  a  time 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY.  200 

when  every  one  else  doubted  the  propriety  and  desirability  of  drying 
grapes  by  artificial  heat,  and  the  dryer  thus  constructed  has  never  yet 
been  surpassed.  One  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Blowers  dryer  was 
the  blower  or  suction  fan,  by  which  means  the  air  was  changed  in  the 
dryer,  the  moist  air  being  sucked  out,  while  dry  air  was  allowed  to 
rush  in.  Mr.  Blowers  improved  nearly  every  branch  of  the  raisin 
industry,  And  studied  every  operation,  such  as  plowing,  irrigation,  cur- 
ing and  packing,  more  thoroughly  than  any  one  ever  did  before  or  has 
done  after  him.  Mr.  Blowers'  raisins  were  the  best  in  the  State  at  their 
time,  and  wherever  exhibited  received  the  first  premium.  At  the  World's 
Fair  at  Philadelphia,  they  received  the  first  premium,  and  attracted 
much  attention.  I  may  add  that  Mr.  Blowers  is  the  inventor  or  at 
least  the  perfector  of  the  "face-down"  method  of  packing,  the  best 
method  for  packing  raisins.  Mr.  Blowers  has  published  a  short  essay, 
on  raisins,  referred  to  elsewhere  in  this  book. 

ROBERT  McPHERSON. 

Robert  McPherson  was  for  Southern  California  what  G.  G.  Briggs 
and  R.  B.  Blowers  were  for  the  Northern  part.  The  McPherson  vine- 
yard extended  once  over  360  acres  of  land,  and  one  year  he  shipped  over 
one  hundred  thousand  boxes.  Many  of  the  practical  devices  for  irriga- 
ting, curing  and  packing  raisins  now  generally  in  use  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  State  were  invented  by  him.  The  McPherson  vineyard  was 
situated  in  Orange  county  in  the  southern  part  of  this  State.  Robert 
McPhcrson  was  certainly  the  largest  and  most  prominent  raisin-grower 
in  Southern  California.  He  is  now  no  longer  in  the  business. 

T.  C.   WHITE. 

The  "Raisina"  vineyard  was  the  first  thoroughly  conducted  raisin 
vineyard  in  Fresno.  It  was  planted  by  T.  C.White  in  1876,  '77  and  '78, 
and  from  that  time  gradually  extended  until  it  contained  one  hundred 
and  twenty  acres,  of  which  sixty-five  acres  are  in  Muscatel  grapes  of 
the  variety  known  as  Gordo  Blanco,  brought  there  from  the  Blowers 
vineyard  at  Woodland.  The  vineyard  also  contains  some  Seedless 
Sultanas  and  White  Corinths.  The  soil  of  the  vineyard  is  white  ash, 
the  location  two  miles  south  of  Fresno,  in  the  old  Central  California 
Colony.  The  soil  is  now  partly  subirrigated.  T.  C.  White  has  done 
a  great  deal  to  develop  and  perfect  the  packing  and  curing  of  raisins, 
and  he  has  also  given  much  time  and  study  to  the  other  branches  of  the 
industry,  such  as  growing,  pruning  and  cultivation.  Through  the 
study  of  the  imported  Spanish  raisins,  as  well  as  of  those  produced  by 
R.  B.  Blowers,  Mr.  White  succeeded  in  packing  a  very  superior  brand, 
which  has  never  been  surpassed  in  this  State.  The  brands  packed  at 
the  Raisina  vineyard  were  as  follows  :  Dehesa  Clusters,  London  Layers, 
California  Layers,  Loose  Muscatels,  and  cartoons  of  two  and  one-half 
pounds.  The  largest  pack  at  one  time  was  thirteen  thousand  boxes  of 
twenty  pounds  each.  In  order  to  "face"  the  boxes  accurately  and 
rapidly,  T.  C.  White  invented  the  facing-plate  elsewhere  described  in 
this  book.  Experiencing  considerable  difficulty  in  properly  facing  his 


210  THE     RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

Dehesas,  it  occurred  to  him  that  a  block  or  plate  might  be  made  with 
cavities  in  which  the  raisins  could  be  placed  quickly  and  without  danger 
of  being  disturbed.  His  idea  was  entirely  original,  and  the  facing  device 
as  made  by  him  is  a  perfect  machine  which  has  not  been  improved 
upon.  This  device  is  now  covered  by  patents. 

In  packing  T.  C.  White  employed  the  Blowers'  method,  or  the  '  'face- 
down '  '  method,  which  he  so  improved  upon  that  it  has  not  since  been 
excelled.  Many  of  the  fine  points  in  raisin  curing  and  packing  were 
perfected  by  him,  and  the  raisin  industry  will  always  be  benefited  by  the 
work  he  has  done.  Below  I  give  a  list  of  the  premiums  taken  by  T.  C. 
White's  raisins  at  various  fairs:  1885,  silver  medal  and  special  first 
premium  for  best  raisins  at  Mechanics'  Fair  in  San  Francisco;  1886, 
first  premium  and  gold  medal  at  the  Mechanics'  Fair  in  San  Francisco  ; 
1888,  first  premium  and  one  hundred  dollars  for  best  raisins  at  the 
State  Fair.  Same  year  they  received  first  premium  and  gold  medal  at 
the  Fresno  District  Fair  ;  1889,  first  premium  at  the  Fresno  District 
Fair. 

MISS  M.  F.  AUSTIN. 


The  story  of  Miss  M.  F.  Austin  and  her  success  with  the  Hedge 
Vineyard  reads  like  a  beautiful  tale.  A  schoolteacher'  by  occupation 
Miss  Austin  possessed  many  prominent  qualities  and  elevated  ideas, 
among  others  that  horticulture  should  become  a  business  for  women  as 
well  as  for  men.  Acting  upon  these  ideas,  Miss  Austin  removed  to 
Fresno  in  1878  in  company  with  a  lady  friend  and  teacher,  Miss  L.  H. 
Hatch,  and  she  began  immediately  to  improve  her  Hedge  Row  Vineyard, 
a  part  of  which  had  been  planted  two  years  before  by  Bernhard  Marks, 
the  founder  of  the  Central  California  Colony.  The  vineyard  was  grad- 
ually extended  until  it  contained  one  hundred  acres,  nearly  all  in  Gordo 
Blanco  vines.  Miss  Austin  must  be  given  credit  for  having  improved 
upon  many  operations  in  the  vineyard  and  in  the  packing-house.  She 
first  discovered  that  under  proper  conditions  the  sulphuring  should  be  done 
in  the  flowers  of  the  grapevines.  By  this  method  she  one  year  largely 
increased  her  crop  of  grapes.  In  packing  she  showed  her  womanly 
taste  and  refinement,  and  not  only  succeeded  in  producing  superior 
Layer  and  Dehesa  raisins,  but  made  several  innovations  in  packing 
which  to  this  day  are  imitated.  Among  these  we  may  mention  the 
packing  in  cartoons,  and  in  small  ornamentecLDaper  bags,  which  latter 
were  again  placed  in  paper  boxes.  Miss  Austin  and  T.  C.  White  were 
the  originators  of  fancy  packing  in  this  State. 

The  largest  pack  of  the  Hedge  Row  Vineyard  was  seventy-five  hun- 
dred boxes,  while  the  total  of  one  year's  pack  reached  sixteen  thousand 
boxes.  Miss  Austin  built  the  first  raisin  dryer  in  Fresno,  and  demon- 
strated that  machine-dried  raisins  were  a  success  if  not  a  necessity  as 
regards  the  last  crop.  .  The  pluck  and  intelligence  of  Miss  Austin  soon 
became  extensively  known,  "and  rnrmy  were-  thp  Indies  whoT  imitating 
her,  engaged  in  horticulture  ^pH  in  ffie  raisin  industry.  Fresno  county 
and  the  State  at  large  owe  her  a  debt  ot  gratitude  for  what  she  has  done. 
Those  who  had  the  pleasure  and  honor  of  her  friendship  lost  in  her  a 
dear  and  faithful  friend,  a  brilliant  and  intelligent  companion,  and  a 
person  who  had  few  equals  in  any  path  of  life. 


THE     RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  211 

JOSEPH  T.  GOODMAN. 

The  owner  of  the  Floreal  vineyard  arrived  in  Fresno  in  1879,  and 
purchased  a  then  already  started  plantation,  which,  however,  he  soon 
greatly  remodeled,  enlarged  and  improved.  Mr.  Goodman,  formerly 
one  of  the  brilliant  newspaper  men  and  literary  writers  of  this  coast, 
and  publisher  of  the  Territorial  Enterprise  of  Virginia  City,  Nevada, 
has  probably  more  than  any  other  man  studied  the  characteristics  and 
requirements  of  the  raisin  grapes.  His  vineyard,  while  not  the  largest, 
is  in  our  opinion  the  best  cared  for  in  the  State,  and  newcomers  could 
perhaps  not  do  better  than  learn  from  it.  It  now  comprises  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  acres,  mostly  in  Gordo  Blanco.  For  the  curing  of  the 
grapes,  thirty  thousand  trays  or  more  are  needed,  while  a  separate  pack- 
ing-house and  tray-shed  are  prominent  features  of  the  vineyard.  The 
land  was  all  leveled  with  great  care  before  planting,  and  every  check 
can  be  flooded  if  necessary.  The  soil  is  the  very  richest,  being  the 
chocolate-colored  loam,  which  in  Fresno  is  considered  the  best  and 
strongest  soil  for  Muscat  grapes.  The  location  of  the  vineyard  is  the 
old  sink  of  Red  Bank  creek,  in  the  same  district  where  Forsyth's  and 
Butler's  vineyards  are  situated.  As  regards  planting,  pruning,  sulphur- 
ing, topping  and  other  vineyard  operations,  Mr.  J.  T.  Goodman  is 
an  authority  from  whose  verdict  there  is  no  appeal.  The  Floreal  vine- 
yard always  bears  good  crops,  which  must  be  exclusively  attributed  to 
the  care  given  the  vineyard  and  to  the  judgment  with  which  all  opera- 
tions there  are  conducted.  Mr.  Goodman  has  invented  several  appli- 
ances for  facilitating  the  vineyard  work,  most  prominent  among  which 
I  may  mention  the  vineyard  truck,  by  the  means  of  which  the  expenses 
of  harvesting  and  some  other  vineyard  labors  are  greatly  reduced.  He 
also  suggested  the  facing-plate  independently  of  T.  C.  White. 

A.  B.  BUTLER. 

The  largest  raisin  vineyard  in  Fresno  county  or  in  the  State  of  Cali- 
fornia, as  well  as  in  the  world,  is  owned  by  A.  B.  Butler.  The  vineyard 
is  situated  about  three  miles  southeast  of  Fresno,  on  the  sink  of  Red 
Bank.  It  contains  about  six  hundred  acres,  nearly  all  of  which  is 
planted  in  Muscat  grapes  of  the  Gordo  Blanco  and  Alexandria  varieties, 
and  a  few  Sultanas.  The  vines  are  planted  at  various  distances,  such  as 
ten  by  sixteen  feet,  and  six  by  twelve  feet,  etc.  The  pruning  is  all ' '  low 
standard, ' '  except  the  Sultanas,  which  are  staked  four  feet  high.  The 
only  trees  in  the  vineyard  consist  of  two  or  three  avenues  of  fig  and 
poplar  interspersed  with  fan  palms,  while  some  poplar  trees  line  the 
outside  boundaries  of  the  vineyard.  The  first  vines  were  set  in  1879, 
and  since  that  time  the  planting  has  been  carried  on  untit  the  whole 
six  hundred  acres  are  now  in  vines  in  full  bearing.  Mr.  Butler  himself 
superintends  the  general  work  of  the  vineyard,  and  during  the  packing 
time  carefully  watches  the  packing.  The  latter  is  accomplished  in  a 
large  building  containing  packing-rooms,  storerooms,  steam  dryer,  sep- 
arator, box  factory  and  storeroom  for  labels.  The  dryer  has  a  capacity 
of  fifty  tons  charge  of  green  fruit,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  best  in 
the  State.  There  are  two  dryers,  the  large  one  just  mentioned  and  one 
smaller,  of  twenty-five  tons  capacity,  situated  in  the  center  of  the  vine- 
yard. The  Butler  raisins  are  celebrated  all  over  the  continent,  and  are 


212  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

most  excellently  packed.  The  labels  used  are  very  fine  and  are  manu- 
factured to  order  in  France.  The  principal  brand  packed  is  "Butler's 
Cluster  Raisins." 

Mr.  Butler  acquired  much  experience  in  Spain,  where  he  spent  con- 
siderable time  studying  the  raisin  business.  The  output  of  the  vineyard 
has  been  as  high  as  one  hundred  thousand  boxes  per  year.  Similar  to 
the  other  vineyards  in  this  district,  the  soil  of  the  Butler  vineyard  is 
among  the  very  best  in  the  county,  all  now  subirri gated.  Mr.  Butler  is 
the  largest  packer  in  the  State,  and  his  raisins  have  gained  a  continental 
reputation.  As  regards  Spanish  methods  of  packing,  Mr.  Butler  is 
better  posted  than  any  other  packer  in  the  State.  An  interesting  essay 
on  Mr.  Butler's  experiences  in  California  and  in  Spain^is~publis1ietr-iiT 
monthly  California  for  March,  1890.  The  crop  this  year  promises  to 
be  of  extra  quality. 

WILLIAM   FORSYTH. 

The  owner  of  the  Forsyth  vineyard  and  the  producer  of  one  of  the 
two  finest  brands  of  raisins  in  this  State  arrived  in  Fresno  in  1881,  and 
planted  his  present  vineyard  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  in  1882 
and  1883.  The  vineyard  is  situated  in  the  sink  of  Red  Bank  creek, 
some  four  miles  east  of  Fresno,  and  consists  of  heavy  reddish  or 
chocolate-colored  soil  of  unusual  richness.  The  vines  used  are  almost 
entirely  the  Gordo  Blanco  variety,  with  a  few  Sultanas.  The  land  is  all 
leveled,  was  irrigated  the  first  year  only,  and  is  now  subirrigated  and 
drained,  requiring  no  further  irrigation  of  any  kind.  The  vines,  set 
eight  by  eight  feet,  are  pruned  low,  and  given  short  spurs.  The  out- 
buildings consist  of  a  packing-house,  and  equalizing  or  sweating  house 
combined,  thirty-five  by  one  hundred  and  seventy  feet.  A  dryer  of  late 
pattern,  with  steam  boilers  and  flues,  has  a  capacity  of  forty  tons  at  a 
charge.  The  houses  for  the  laboring  men  as  well  as  the  Colonel's 
dwelling-house  are  most  elegant  and  complete,  and  show  the  care  end 
refined  taste  of  the  owner.  Over  fifty  thousand  trays  for  drying  the 
raisins  are  used  in  curing,  the  trays  being  three  feet  square,  large 
enough  to  hold  thirty  pounds  of  grapes.  The  grove  of  palms,  orna- 
mental and  shade  trees,  the  flowers  and  shrubbery  surrounding  the 
Colonel's  home  in  the  center  of  the  vineyard,  are  all  models  of  beauty 
and  testify  to  the  culture  and  prosperity  of  one  of  our  foremost  raisin  - 
growers. 

The  vineyard  produces  yearly  from  fifty  to  sixty  thousand  boxes  of 
twenty  pounds  each,  of  the  highest  quality  of  raisins.  The  raisins  arc 
remarkable  for  their  high  grade  and  even  packing.  The  brands  arc  : 
^Forsyth's  Imperial  Clusters,  the  "Tiger"  brand  and  the  "Forget-me- 
not"  brand.  During  the  packing  and  picking  season  some  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  hands  are  employed  daily  in  the  various  departments,  all 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  Colonel  Forsyth  himself,  who  has 
gained  his  experience  both  by  practical  work  in  California  and  by  visits 
to  the  raisin  districts  of  Spain.  During  the  latter  he  has  gained  mncli 
experience  about  foreign  methods,  which  he  has  not  been  slow  to  apply 
in  his  own  business.  As  regards  location,  the  Forsyth  vineyard  is  not 
surpassed  by  any,  and  as  regards  appointments  it  is  the  most  complete 
and  handsome  establishment  that  can  be  found  anywhere.  The  For- 
syth raisins  excel  in  quality  of  berry,  grade,  uniformity  of  size  and 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY.  213 

in  the  elegance  and  care  with  which  they  are  packed.  They  stand  at 
the  head  of  the  California  raisin  product.  Col.  Forsyth  has  been 
appointed  Commissioner  for  California  at  the  World  Fair  in  Chicago, 
1892. 

A.  D.  BARLING. 

Among  our  younger  raisin-growers  and  packers,  Mr.  A.  D.  Barling 
occupies  a  prominent  place.  A  sketch  of  his  life  and  connection  with 
the  raisin  industry  is  most  interesting.  He  came  to  the  raisin  district 
with  only  a  dollar  in  his  pocket.  To-day  he  is  a  wealthy  grower  and 
packer,  whose  raisin  brand  is  among  the  best  in  the  State. 

Mr.  Barling,  formerly  of  Michigan,  was  educated  at  Ann  Arbor.  In 
1873  he  left  college  and  started  West,  settling  in  Merced  county,  Cali- 
fornia. There  he  became  connected  with  the  Farmers'  Canal  Co.,  as 
their  chief  engineer,  which  position  he  held  for  seven  years,  and  in  that 
capacity  conducted  the  water  of  the  Merced  river  down  to  Livingston 
on  the  S.  P.  R.  R.  From  Merced  he  went  to  Mexico  in  the  employ  of 
the  Mexican  Central  Railroad,  but  returned  to  San  Francisco,  California, 
in  1882.  Here  he  had  charge  of  the  construction  of  the  large  wharf  at 
Alameda  point,  then  being  constructed  by  the  S.  P.  R.  R.  Co. 

Becoming  tired  of  working  for  a  salary,  Mr.  Barling  went  to  Fresno  and 
rented  a  lot  in  the  Central  Colony.  By  dint  of  hard  work,  not  having 
any  capital  at  all  to  start  with,  he  and  his  wife  saved  one  thousand 
dollars,  with  which  they  purchased  the  present  El  Modelo  vineyard,  pay- 
ing forty-five  dollars  per  acre  for  the  rough  land  in  1885.  Mr.  Barling 
and  his  wife  went  to  work  with  a  will  and  set  out  the  land  in  Muscat 
cuttings,  but  jtoojighjunfprtiiriR  te  -and  unforseen  circumstances  all  the 
Jirst  planting  was  lost.  Undaunted  they  replanted  in  1886  with  great  suc- 
cess, and  to-day  they  own  one  of  the  finest  and  best-paying  I5o-acre 
vineyards  in  the  county,  having  yearly  added  new  territory  to  the  first 
purchase.  Last  season  they  packed  sixteen  thousand  boxes  of  Muscat 
raisins,  and  established  the  El  Modelo  brand,  which  in  the  market  is 
considered  second  to  none,  and  which  has  established  an  enviable  repu- 
tation for  its  packers.  This  year's  pack  is  estimated  to  reach  fifty 
thousand  boxes  of  twenty  pounds  each.  Mr.  Barling's  thorough^  edu- 
cation ajad  ^kill  and  experience  as  an  engineer  has  mate^^Tly^contrlBu- 
ted  ToHjs  jsiiccess.  He  has  also  EelcTtEe  position  of~assTslanf  cashier  in 
thlTPresno  Loan  &  Savings  Bank  for  the  last  five  years. 

FRANK    H.    BALL. 

The  Ball  Vineyard  adjoins  the  town  of  Fresno,  and  is  situated  in 
the  rich  red  lands,  the  sink  of  old  creeks.  The  one  hundred  and 
twenty  acres  in  Muscatels  are  among  the  best  cared  for  in  the  district. 
Mr.  Ball  possesses  the  faculty  of  doing  the  necessary  work  at  the  right 
time  and  doing  it  thoroughly.  The  crop  is  annually  sold  in  the  sweat- 
boxes  to  packers  in  Fresno  City,  no  raisins  being  packed  on  the  vine- 
yard. Mr.  Ball  is  the  aiijivvr.^!.  ft"  ^xfellent  essay  on  raisin-grape 
growing  and  curing,  published  in  the  California  iof  July,  1890.  His 
methods  of  culture  and  curing  are  the  best,  and  the  raisins  produced 
by  them  are  not  surpassed  by  any  in  the  State.  Mr.  Ball  is  one  of  our 
most  successful  raisin-men. 


214 


THE    RAISIX    INDUSTRY. 


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LITERATURE. 

The  literature  of  the  raisin  industry  is  a  very  scant  one,  and  as  far 
as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain  not  a  single  work  especially  devoted  to 
this  industry  has  appeared  in  any  language.  The  various  cyclopedias 
contain  articles  on  raisins,  but  they  are  all  more  or  less  confused  and 
unreliable,  and  of  no  great  use  to  any  one  who  wishes  only  reliable 
information,  and  who  must  depend  upon  the  same  for  practical  pur- 
poses. As  regards  California,  much  information  has  been  given  about 
raisin  growing  and  curing  in  almost  every  newspaper  published  in  the 
State.  To  mention  them  all  would  be  to  enumerate  all  the  papers  of 
the  Pacific  Coast.  I  can  here  refer  only  to  a  few  of  the  principal  ones, 
where  the  student  who  has  time  and  inclination  to  follow  up  the  subject 
may  find  material  for  a  more  detailed  history  of  the  raisin  industry 
than  the  one  I  have  written. 

First  among  these  papers  I  must  mention  the  Pacific  Rural  Press ; 
edited  by  that  distinguished  horticulturist,  Professor  B.  J.  Wickson, 
and  published  by  Messrs.  Dewey  &  Co.  of  San  Francisco.  In  the  files 
of  this  weekly,  frorij^lj^pto  tne  present  time,  1890,  may  be  found 
scattered  many  interestmgarticles  referring  to  our  subject.  A  paper 
contemporaneous  with  it  was  the  San  Francisco  Merchant,  which  con- 
tained many  interesting  articles  on  raisins  and  raisin  grapes,  especially 
during  the  period  from  1881  to  1887.  In  the  issues  of  the  Press  and 
Horticulturist  of  Riverside,  San  Bernardino  county,  California,  we  find 
during  a  series  of  years  occasional  notes  and  articles  referring  to  the 
raisin  industry  of  that  section  of  the  country.  As  regards  the  Santa 
Ana  and  Orange  county  district,  the  Anaheim  Gazette  will  prove  the 
most  reliable  guide,  as  recording  the  rise  and  decline,  and,  as  we  believe, 
also  the  revival,  of  the  raisin  industry  of  that  section.  The  Yolo 
Democrat  and  the  Woodland  Mail  published  at  Woodland,  Yolo  county, 
have  devoted  much  space  to  the  raisin  industry  of  that  section.  In 
Fresno  county  the ^rosooj^epublican .  between  the  years  1882  and  1887, 
contained  weekly  a  "separate  department  for  viticulture  and  horticul-  j 
ture  edited  by  the  author  of  this  book,  and  that  paper  has  ever  afterwards 
devoted  much  space  to  recording  the  progress  of  the  raisin  industry  of 
the  country.  The  Fresno  Expositor,  the  oldest  paper  in  Fresno  county, 
has  contained  much  information  about  raisin  grapes  and  vineyards  since 
*873,  when  the  first  raisin- vines  were  planted  in  the  county.  During 
the  period  from  1888  to  1890,  this  paper  contained  almost  daily  edito- 
rials upon  the  raisin  industry,  mostly  contributed  by  this  author. 

The  California  Fruit  Grower,  a  weekly  horticultural  paper  mentioned 
below,  has  since  its  beginning  a  few  years  ago  made  dried  fruit  its 
specialty,  and  has  contained  many  important  articles  on  our  industry, 
and  in  its  columns  may  be  found  the  most  reliable  raisin  statistics  pub- 
lished in  this  State.  The  San  Francisco  Examiner  contained  in  1888  s. 
series  of  articles  on  raisins,  contributed  by  this  author.  The  San  Francisco 


216  THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 

Chronicle  has  from  time  to  time  given  much  space  to  the  raisin  industry, 
and  its  horticultural  editor,  George  F.  Weeks,  has  most  ably  contribu- 
ted to  the  dissemination  of  knowledge  about  our  California  raisins.  A 
special  raisin  edition  of  this  paper  appeared  February  2 ,  1 890.  Another 
San  Francisco  paper,  the  Journal of 'Commerce,  contains  much  information 
as  regards  raisin  statistics  and  the  progress  of  the  raisin  industry  general- 
ly, and  its  files  may  be  consulted  with  much  interest  and  profit.  Among 
Eastern  journals  I  wish  onfy  to  call  attention  to  the  Fruit  Trade 
Journal  published  at  New  York  up  to  date  (June,  1890);  it  contains 
weekly  statistics  of  raisin  sales,  etc.,  all  of  great  interest  to  the  grower 
and  packer.  An  important  contribution  to  the  history  of  the  raisin 
industry  is  the  work  by  Professor  E.  J.  Wickson, — "California  Fruits, 
and  How  to  Grow  Them."  It  contains  several  chapters  on  grapes, 
most  conscientiously  written  and  very  reliable.  This  book  will  always 
remain  as  a  standard  work  of  reference  upon  the  subject.  Professor 
E.  W.  Hilgard  has  during  a  number  of  years  published  essays  upon 
topics  related  to  our  industry,  all  most  valuable  to  the  practical  grower. 
They  are  enumerated  below. 

I  may  also  mention  the  Rural  Californian,  published  in  I/os 
Angeles.  It  devotes  from  time  to  time  some  space  to  the  raisin  industry 
of  the  southern  part  of  the  State.  In  the  Reports  of  the  State  Board 
of  Horticultural  Commissioners  will  be  found  several  papers  upon  the 
raisin  industry,  all  mentioned  below.  Similarly  the  Reports  of  the 
State  Board  of  Viticultural  Commissioners  contain  several  important 
and  very  interesting  essays  on  raisins,  etc.,  which  are  duly  mentioned 
below.  In  these  reports  we  find  articles  by  T.  C.  White  and  W.  B. 
West  and  others,  as  well  as  interesting  discussions  by  growers.  The 
California,  a  journal  of  rural  industry,  which  commenced  publication 
this  year  (1890),  and  is  issued  weekly  and  monthly,  makes  the  raisin 
/  industry  a  specialty.  It  has  already  contained  many  articles  contribu- 
ted  by  our  most  successful  growers,  such  as  A.  D.  Barling,  T.  C.  White, 
A.  B.  Butler,  Frank  Ball,  Wm.  Forsyth,  etc.,  and  also  by  this  author. 
In  the  way  of  illustrations,  California  is  fortunate  to  possess  a  most 
exquisite  work  on  grapes.  We  refer  to  the  very  fine  colored  prints  of 
California  grape  varieties  published  by  Edward  Bosqui.  Among  the 
number  are  our  Muscat  of  Alexandria  and  Seedless  Sultana.  Each  one 
of  these  plates  is  a  work  of  art,  than  which  there  is  nothing  superior 
produced  anywhere. 

Below  follows  an  enumeration  of  books,  which  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  refer  to  the  raisin  industry.  For  access  to  many  of  them  I 
am  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  the  proprietor  of  the  Sutro  Library,  Mr. 
Adolph  Sutro,  of  San  Francisco,  and  to  his  librarian,  Mr.  George  Moss. 

ANSTED,  D.T.:    Ionian  Islands  in  1863.    I/jn-  BARLING,  A.  D.:    Culture  and  Curing.    In  Vol. 

don,  1863.  I,  No.  4,  of  monthly  California,  a  Journal  of  \J 

ARQUIMBATJ,  JOHN  D.,  United  States  Consul  at  Rural  Industry,  El  Verano,  Cal.;  also  in  same 

Denia:  Raisins  in  Denia.    United  States  Con-  weekly  No.  14,  April  12,  1890. 

sular  Reports,  No.  41^, pages68i  and  682.  1884.  BEAUJOUR,  P.:    Tableau  du  Commerce  de  la 

Mr.  Arquimbau  is  the  largest  packer  in  Va-  Grece.    Paris,  1880. 

lencia.  BLOWERS,  R.  B.:    Report  on  Raisin-making  in   . 
AUDIBERT,  JOSEPH:    Les  Raisin  Sec.     Paris,  California.    First  Annual  Report  of  the  State  " 

1884.    This  work  treats  almost  exclusively  of          Board  of  Viticultural  Commissioners.    San 

dried  grapes  imported    from    Turkey  and  Francisco,  1881.    Pages  13  to  15. 

Greece  to  France  lor  wine-making.  BORDE,  ANDREW:    Breviary  of  Health.    1542. 

BALL,  FRANK  H. :    My  Work  in  the  Raisin  BULLETIN,  THE  SAN  FRANCISCO:  Published  by 

Vineyard.    MS.  to  be  published  in  California  Messrs.  Pickering  and  Fitch,  San  Francisco. 

for  July,  1890.  The  Bulletin  was  the  first  of  the  large  San 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 


217 


Francisco  papers  to  devote  time  and  space  to 
the  horticultural  and  viticultural  interests  of 
California,  and  its  weekly  issues  between  1875 
and  1890  have  been  lull  of  valuable  informa- 
tion upon  these  subjects. 

CALIFORNIA,  a  Journal  of  Rural  Industry : 
Published  by  The  California  Company,  San 
Francisco.  Gustav  Eisen,  Horticultural  Ed- 
itor. Contained  a  series  of  articles  on  Raisins, 
by  the  author,  commencing  January,  1890,  to 
date  (June,  1890). 

CHAMPIN,  AIME:  Vine  Grafting.  Translated  by 
J.  H.  Wheeler,  in  Second  Annual  Report  of  the 
i  Chief  Executive  Viticultural  Officer  to  the 
Board  of  State  Viticultural  Commissioners 
for  the  year  1882-83,  Appendix  III.  Sacra- 
mento, 1883. 

CHIPMAN,  GEN.  N.  P.:  Report  Upon  the  Fruit 
Industry  of  California.  Published  by  the 
Board  of  Trade.  San  Francisco,  1889. 

CHRONICLE,  THE  SAN  FRANCISCO:  Published 
by  M.  H.  deYoung,  San  Francisco.  This  large 
daily  paper  contains  in  the  weekly  and  Sun- 
day issues  much  valuable  information  about 
horticultural  subjects.  The  issue  of  Feb.  2, 
1890,  was  especially  devoted  to  the  raisin  in- 
dustry, and  was  most  ably  edited  by  George 
F.  Weeks,  its  horticultural  editor. 

COLMET:  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.  1838.  Grapes 
of  Eschol,  seedless. 

CORYAT,  THOMAS:    Crudities.    London,  1776. 

DAVY,  JOHN:  Notes  and  Observations  on  the 
Ionian  Islands  and  Malta.  London,  1842. 

DIRECTORY  OF  THE  GRAPE -GROWERS  AND 
WINE-MAKERS  OF  CALIFORNIA;  compiled  by 
the  State  Board  of  Viticultural  Commissioners 
of  California.  Sacramento,  1888. 

DODOENS,  RAMBERT  (Dodonaeus  Rembertus): 
Histoire  des  Plantes.  Antwerp,  1557. 

DOWLEN,  E-:  Several  Reports  on  the  Myste- 
<«ious  Vine  Disease  to  the  State  Board  of  Viti- 
cultural Commissioners  of  Cal.;  published  in 
the  San  Francisco  Merchant  and  Viticullurist 
during  1889-90.  These  reports  of  carefully 
conducted  experiments  are  highly  interest- 
ing. 

EISEN,  GUSTAV:  Raisin -grape  Growing.  A 
series  of  articles  on  the  Growing,  Curing  and 
Packing  of  Raisin  Grapes.  Published  in  the 
San  Francisco  Examiner,  both  in  the  daily 
and  weekly,  during  the  months  of  September 
and  October,  1888 ;  also  a  series  of  articles  on 
Raisins,  in  California  for  1890. 

ENGLISH  SOURCES:  Under  this  heading  I  have 
referred  to  a  pamphlet  on  Dried  Fruits,  by  an 
unknown  English  author,  privately  printed 
and  circulated.  The  part  pertaining  to  raisins 
is  very  detailed  and  contains  much  informa- 
tion of  which  I  have  made  free  use  in  this 
book.  It  was  kindly  placed  at  my  disposal 
by  Mr.  Thomas  Nelmes,  of  Pasadena.  The 
book  being  without  title  and  the  author  un- 
known, I  cannot  refer  to  it  in  any  other  way. 
The  pamphlet  appears  to  have  been  printed 
in  1876. 

EXAMINER,  THE  SAN  FRANCISCO:  Published 
by  W.  R.  Hearst,  San  Francisco.  Contained 
during  the  months  of  Sept.  and  Oct.,  1888,  a 
series  of  articles  upon  Raisin-grape  Growing 
by  the  author  of  this  book.  In  March,  1890, 
appeared  a  special  Fresno  number, with  much 
information  about  the  raisin  industry  (author 
unknown). 

FARLOW,  W.  G.:  On  the  American  Grapevine 
Mildew.  Bulletin  of  the  Bussey  Institution, 
March,  1876.  Boston,  Mass. 

GALLOWAY,  B.  T. :  The  Journal  of  Mycology. 
Published  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington.  Several  volumes  pub- 
lished in  serial  to  date,  1890.  Contains  articles 
on  Grape  Fungi,  etc. 

GRASSET  DE  SAINT  SAUVEUR,  TACQUE:  Voyage 
dans  les  lies  et  Possessions  des  Venetiennes. 
Paris,  1800. 


GROCER  AND  COUNTRY  MERCHANT,  THE  SAN 
FRANCISCO:  Published  by  Briggs  and  Har- 
rington, San  Francisco.  Devotes  much  atten- 
tion to  raisins,  as  well  as  to  other  rural  indus- 
tries of  California. 

HACKLUYT,  RICHARD,  REV.:  Principal  Naviga- 
tions, Voyages  and  Discoveries  made  by  the 
English  Nation.  London,  1589. 

IlARKNESS,  H.  W.:  Fungi  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 
Bulletin  of  the  California  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Vol.  II,  1886  to  1887.  San  Francisco,  1887. 

HARTEMA,  LUDOVICUS  DE  :  In  Hakluyt.  Prin- 
cipal Navigations,  Soc.  ed.,  p.  77.  Mentions 
seedless  raisins  from  the  Town  of  Reame  in 
Arabia  Felix. 

HEAP,  G.  H.,  United  States  Consul-General  at 
Constantinople :  Fruit  Culture  in  Turkey. 
United  States  Consular  Reports,  No.  41^, 
pages  726  to  740.  1884. 

HILGARD,  E.  W.:  Alkali  Lands,  Irrigation  and 
Drainage,  etc.  University  of  California,  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture,  Appendix  VII,  Report 
for  the  year  1886.  Sacramento,  1886. 

Investigation  of  California  Soils.  Appen- 
dix I,  Report  of  the  Professor  in  Charge,  etc. 
University  of  California,  College  of  Agricul- 
ture. Sacramento,  1882. 

The  Rise  of  Alkali  in  the  San  Joaquin 


Valley.  University  of  California,  Agricultural 
Experimental  Station,  Berkeley,  Cal.  Bul- 
letin No.  83. 

Abnormal  Deposits  on  Vine  Leaves.    In 

same.    Bulletin  No.  70. 

Mysterious  Death  of  Vines.  Same.  Bul- 
letin No.  70. 

Sulphuring  of  Vines.     Same.     Bulletin 


No.  56. 
In 


irrigation,  Drainage  and  Alkali.  Bulle- 
tin No.  53. 

Examination  of  Tule,  Marsh  and  Alkali 

Lands.  Bulletin  No.  28. 

LE  BRUN  (orBRUYN)  CORNEILLE:  Voyage  au 
Levant,  Delft,  1700.  Mentions  seedless  raisins 
in  Persia. 

LITHGOW,  WILLIAM:  Adventures  and  Peregri- 
nations. 1614. 

LOCKE,  JOHN:  Histoire  de  la  Navigation.  Paris, 
1722. 

MARSTON,  H.  C.,  United  States  Consul  at  Mal- 
aga: Fruit  Culture  in  Malaga.  United  States 
Consular  Reports,  No.  41%,  pages  682  to  689. 
1884. 

Malaga  Raisins.  United  States  Consular 

Reports,  No.  10.  Republished  in  said  Reports, 
No.  41^,  pages  691  to  693.  1884. 

MAS  ET  PULLAT:  Le  Vignoble.  Paris,  1876-77. 
On  page  73,  tome  i,  we  find  a  figure  of  a  Mus- 
—  cat  of  Alexandria  with  round  berries,  and 
which  undoubtedly  is  nearly  related  to  the 
Gordo  Blanco.  It  is  not  the  true  Muscat  of 
Alexandria.  As  synonyms  are  given  Gordo 
Blanco  and  (Don  Simon  Roxas  is  referred  to 
as  authority)  also  Uva  Zibeba.  The  latter  is 
undoubted  the  same  as  our  Muscat  of  Alex- 
andria. Another  synonym  is  Muscatel  Ro- 
mano, which  again  is  only  another  name  for 
Gordo  Blanco.  The  French  authors  have  un- 
doubtedly everywhere  confounded  the  two 
varieties.  In  the  same  work,  page  31,  tome  i, 
we  also  find  the  White  Corinth  referred  to  as 
the  currant  grape  of  Zante,  which  is  erro- 
neous. 

MORYSON,  FYNES:  Itinerary,  con  tain  ing  Twelve 
Years'  Travels  through  Turkey,  France,  etc. 
1617. 

NIEBUHR,  CARSTENS:  Description  de  1' Arabic 
(Trans,  from  German).  Copenhague,  1773. 
Mentions  "Kishmish"  seedless  raisins  from 
Arabia. 

NOVEAU  DUHAMEL  :  On  Traite"  des  Arbres  et 
Arbustes.  Paris,  1815.  On  pi.  No.  65,  tome 
7,  figures  Muscat  d' Alexandria.  This  variety 
differs  from  our  Muscat  of  Alexandria  by 
having  the  berries  less  tapering,  like  the 


218 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 


"Malaga."  On  pi.  72,  tome  7,  there  is  a  figure 
of  White  Corinth,  but  the  bunch  is  too  loose 
to  be  characteristic. 

PACIFIC  RURAL  PRESS  :  Edited  by  Prof.  E.  J. 
Wickspn.  Published  by  Dewey  &  Co.,  San 
Francisco;  weekly.  It  contains  in  its  pages 
occasional  references  to  the  raisin  industry. 
The  issue  of  Mays,  iS77?  contained  an  article 
on  Iluasco  Gfapes  of  Chile. 

PALLAS  :  Voyages  dans  pi.  Provinces  de  1'Em- 
pire  de  Russie.  i,  b  13,  "  Kyshmish  "  seedless 
raisin  grapes  from  Astrachan. 

PIERCE,  N.  B.:  The  Mysterious  Vine  Disease. 
Essay  read  before  the  State  Horticultural 
Convention  in  I/os  Angeles,  March,  1890.. 
Published  in  California,  a  Journal  of  Rural 
Industry,  Vol.  III.  No.  18,  pages  2  and  3,  1890. 

PLINIUS  :  Historia  Naturalis.  Lib.  xivv  cap.  iv, 
a,  mentions  raisins  such  as  Duracinse  and 
Amineaus;  cap.ii,  b,  MuscadellaandApiarise; 
ct  Corinth  grapes. 

RANDOLPH,  BERNARD:  Present  State  of  Morea, 
Island  of  Zante,  etc.  1689. 

REPORTS  OF  THE  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  SO- 
CIETY OF  CALIFORNIA  :  First  Raisins  Pro- 
duced in  California.  Sacramento,  1863.  Page 
88. 

REPORTS  OF  THE  STATE  BOARD  OK  HORTICUL- 
TURE OF  CALIFORNIA  :  Biennial  Report  for 
1885  and  1886 ;  also  Appendix  for  1887.  Sacra- 
mento, 1887. 

Third  Biennial  Report.  Sacramento,  1888. 

Official  Report  of  the  Tenth  Fruit-grow- 
ers' Convention  of  the  State  of  California,  etc. 
Saramento,  1889. 

Official  Report  of  the  Eleventh  Fruit- 
growers' Convention,  etc.  Sacramento,  1889. 

Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of 

Horticulture.  Sacramento,  1890. 

RICHARDSON,  CHARLES:  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Language.  1836. 

ROXAS,  DON  SIMON:  Essai  sur  les  Variet£s  de 
Vignes  de  1'Andalusia.  Gordo  Blanco  is  here 
designated  as  the  raisin  grape  of  Malaga. 

SCRIBNER,  F.  LAMSON:  Report  to  the  Myco- 
logical  Section  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. In  the  Reports  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture.  Washington,  D.  C.,  1886. 

STEVENS,  W.  E.,  United  States  Consul  at 
Smyrna:  Fruit  Culture  in  Asia  Minor.  Pages 
744  to  748  of  United  States  Consular  Reports, 
No.  41  yz.  June,  1884. 

STURTE VANT,  E.  LEWIS  :  Seedless  Fruits.  Me- 
moirs Torrey  Bot.  Club,  Vol.  i,  No.  4.  New 
York,  1890. 


TABLADO,  JOSE  HIDALGO:  Tratato  delCultivo 
de  la  Vid,  y  Modo  de  Mejorarla.  Madrid, 
1873.  This,  the  standard  authority  on  viti- 
culture in  Spanish,  refers  only  briefly  to  the 
Gordo  Blanco  as  the  raisin  grape  of  Malaga, 
and  gives  as  synonyms  Muscatel  Romano 
and  Muscatel  Real,  but  the  description  of  the 
grape  is  unsatisfactory. 

TA VERNIER,  JEAN  BAPTISTE:  Six  Voyages  in 
Turquie,  etc.  1676. 

THE  CALIFORNIA  FRUIT-GROWER:  Published 
by  B.  N.  Rowley,  San  Francisco;  weekly 
Horticultural  Journal.  Contained  during  1889 
and  1890  several  articles  on  raisins,  among 
others:  White  Muscat  of  Alexandria,  in  No. 
2,  Vol.  VI;  Statistics  of  Malaga  Raisins;  also 
article  on  Currants,  by  L.  C.  Crowe,  etc. 

VERNGE,  F.  DE  LA:  M£moire  sure  la  Malatlie 
de  la  Vigne.  Bordeaux,  1853.  i  PI. 

WARNER,  RICHARD  :  Antiquitates  Culinaricc, 
1791.  Mentions  "The  Forme  of  Curry,"  1390,  a 
work  in  which  "Raysons  of  Coraunte"ure 
first  mentioned  in  English. 

WEST,  W.  B.:  Raisin-making  in  Spain.  First 
Annual  Report  of  the  State  Viticultural  Com- 
missioners. San  Francisco,  1881.  Pages  33  to 

39- 

Raisins  and  Shipping  Grapes.  Essay  read 

before  the  Third  Annual  State  Viticultural 
Convention  in  San  Francisco,  December,  1884. 
Published  by  the  San  Francisco  Merchant  in 
1884. 

WHEELER,  J.  II.:  Bleaching  Seedless  Sultana 
Raisins.  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  State 
Viticultural  Commissioners  for  1887.  Sacra- 
mento, 1888. 

Grafting  to  Muscats.  Appendix  14  to  the 

Annual  Report  of  the  Chief  Executive  Viti- 
cultural Officer  for  the  year  1888.  Sacramen- 
to, 1888.  Contains  reports  from  forty-eight 
grape-growers  as  regards  their  views  and 
success  with  the  grafting  of  muscats. 

WHELER,  SIR  GEORGE  :  Journey  in  Greece. 
1682. 

WHITE,  T.  C.:  Raisins — Drying,  Packing  and 
Preparing  for  the  Market".  Report  of  Sixth 
Annual  State  Viticultural  Convention  of  Cal- 
ifornia. Sacramento,  1888. 

WICKSON,  E.  J.:  California  Fruits,  and  How  to 
Grow  Them.  Dewey  &  Co.,  San  Francisco, 
1889.  This,  the  standard  work  on  fruit-grow- 
ing in  California,  contains  much  reliable  in- 
formation about  the  raisin  industry  of  Cali- 
fornia. 


INDEX. 


Acaniania 29 

Acres  in  Raisins 48,  169 

Aetolico 29 

Agrotis 101 

Aidin 31 

Albunol 12 

Alfilerilla 99 

Algarve 9 

Alicante 10,  15 

Alkali 72 

Andalusia 8,  9 

Antidotes  for  Alkali 74,  75 

Arabs 22 

Argentine  Republic 59 

Argos 29 

Arizona 134 

Armona 214 

Arquimbau,  J.  D 21 

Aruiido  donax 20 

Ash-trough 131 

Assorting 138,  159 

Austin,  M.  F. 39,  122,  210 

Australia 1 1,  59 

Australian  Salt  Bush 74 

Average  Price 21 

Back-furrowing 115 

Bag-holders 157 

Bags  151 

Bairdir 31 

Ball,  Frank  H 213,  216 

Barling,  A.  D 213,  216 

Baskets 18 

Bearing  Quality 79 

Belvidere 9,  10,  36 

Bermuda  Grass 74 

Bidwell,  Gen.  J 44 

Bittern 73 

Borates 72 

Boxes 156,  180 

Brands  of  Raisins 15,  51 

Briggs,  G.  G. 38,  41,  42,  89,  208 

Black  Currants 90 

Black-knot 102 

Black  Smyrnas 10 

Bleeding 26,  128 

Blowers,  R.  B 38,  42,  208,  209 

Bluestone 95 

Butler,  A.  B 20,  126,  211,  212,  216 

Butte  County 44 

Calcium  Chloride  73 

Calabrian  Raisins 9,  10,  36 

California 97 

California  Dipped 10,  149 


California  Malagas ....     10 

California  Raisin  Districts 38 

California  Sultanas 10 

California  Sun-dried 10,  133 

Caiiezos 20 

Canvas  Covering 145,  146 

Carabourna 31,  176 

Carbonate  of  Lime 72,  74 

Care  of  Currant  Cuttings 25,  27 

Care  of  Vines  in  Smyrna 32 

Cartoons 156 

Cascalira  Currants 30 

Castellon 15 

Castille 8 

Catacolo 30 

Catcher 140 

Caterpillars 100 

Cephalonia 27,  29 

Chains 131 

Chaintre  System 127 

Chandler,  S.  R 121 

Chapman,  W.  S 38 

Chemicals 74 

Chenopodium 74 

Chesme  Raisins 10,  31,  34,  176 

Chico 44 

Chile  Guano 13 

Chile  Raisins n,  36 

Chios 23 

Choice  Layers 15 

Clark,  R.G 39 

Clay  for  Grafting 26 

Cleaning 137,  160 

Cleats 149 

Climate.  12, 17,  30, 37, 40, 41, 48,  56,  60, 67 

Coast  Vineyards 66,  67 

College  City 44 

Collins,  W.  E 48 

Color 79 

Colure 57,  93 

Colusa  County 44 

Consumption  of  Currants 29 

Cooking 18,  139 

Cooper,  Blwood 147 

Copper  Sulphate.   95 

Corauntz 6 

Corens . 6 

Corinth 7,  22 

Corone 29 

Cortez  of  Cadiz 8 

Corynthe 7 

Cos 31,  67 

Cost  of  Valencia  Raisins 176 

Cost  of  Vineyards 28,  35,  113 

Cotton  Sacks 51 


220 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 


Covering 123,  145 

Cowdung 27 

Crimea 38 

Crocker-Hoffman  Reservoir 188 

Crop 40,  42,  47,  50,  54,  169 

Cropping 74 

Cross-plowing 115 

Crow,  L.  C 29 

Crusades 1 1,  23 

Cucamonga 48 

Cullera 15 

Cultivation 115,  131 

Curing. .  18,  27, 30,  33, 37,  54, 58,  133,  151 
Currants.  .6, 10,  22,  106, 109,  no,  HI,  178 

Cutter-sleds 116,  131 

Cuttings 179 

Damage  to  Raisins 61 

Davy,  Dr 61 

Dehesa  Raisins 7,9,  13,  15,  87,  90 

Deilephila 100 

Delano 45 

Delmas,  A.  and  D.  M 38 

Denia 9,  15,  16 

Dibble .   130 

Dipped  Raisins 6,  10,  19,  33,  149 

Discoloration 139 

Diseases 16,  73,  93 

Disposing  of  Crop  at  Denia 20 

Distances  of  Vines.  13,  18,  25,  30,  46,  104 

Dodoens 7 

Double  Plow 114 

Dowlen,  E 97 

Downy  Mildew 95 

Drainage 84 

Dried  Grapes 10 

Dryers 147 

Drying.  14,  20,  22,  33,  37,  58, 133, 139, 151 

Drying  Floors 14,  146,  147 

Drying  in  the  Shade 10 

Dry  Season 60 

Duracinae 22 

Duty 177,  178 

Eisen  Vineyard 38 

El  Cajon 39,  55,  62,  63,  134,  195,  196 

Elche .    15 

Eleme  Raisins 10 

Elevating  the  Trays 142 

Equality  Price 21 

Equalizing 162 

Erodium 99 

Erythroneura 42,  98 

Escondido 59 

Estremadura 8 

Etiwanda 48,  52 

Exhausting  the  Soil 76 

Exports 22,  34,  115,  176 

Extent  of  District 15,  30,  45 

Facing 157,  160 

Fall  Rains 60 


Faro  Raisins 10 

Feher  Szagos 92 

Fertilizing 75 

Figliatra 29 

Figs 177,  178 

Filling 166 

Finest  Dehesa 15 

First  Crop 135 

Flat  Stacking 143 

Flavor 90 

Flooding , 81 

Floreal  Vineyard 89 

Fogs ". 46,  66 

Follower 157 

Foreign  Districts 10 

Forsyth,  Wm 39,  212,  216 

Fowler 45,  214 

Frames 156 

Freeman,  George  A 89 

Fresno.... 39,  44,  134,  184,  185,  186,  187 

Frost 63 

Furrowing  for  Irrigation 82 

Gandia 16,  22 

Gargalino 29 

Gastuni 29 

Gila  River  Valley 59,  134 

Glauber  Salt 73 

Goodman,  J.  T 39,  88,  21 1 

Gordo  Blanco 13,  45,  50,  87,  88 

Gould,  E 41 

Grading 151,  153,  164 

Grafting 25,  117 

Graham,  George 21 

Grasset,  St.  Sauveur 22 

Grasshoppers 102 

Great  Reasons 5 

Grecian  Islands 9,  74 

Gridley 44 

Grocers  Company 6 

Guadalaviar 18 

Gypsum 73,  75 

Hakluyt 23,  24 

Happy  Valley 44 

Haraszthy,  A 38 

Hardpan  Soils 70,  71 

Harkness,  W.  H 95,  96,  97 

Harrowing 179 

Health  of  Vines 79 

Heap,  G.  H 34,  67 

Heat  for  Drying 139 

Highlands 48 

Hilgard,  E.  W 216 

Historical 5,  22 

Hoeing 117,  131 

Holland 7,  29 

Huasco  Raisins 36,  89 

Hurdles 6l 

Ideal  Conditions 67 

Imbat 31 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 


221 


Imperial  Clusters 47 

Imperial  Dehesa 15 

Importation 30,  38,  179 

Injury  to  Raisins 65,  139 

Insect  Pests 93 

Ionian  Islands 23,  26,  6r 

Irrigation ....  17,  18,  37,  49,  54, 60,  77,  85 

Italian  Raisins 36 

Ithaca 24,  29 

Jabea 16 

Jackson,  Byron 150 

Jalon 16 

Jaraco > 16 

Jerrea 16 

Jucar  River 18 

Kalamata 29,  30 

Karabournou 31 

Kaweah  River 46 

Kells,  R.  C 121 

Kern 45,  46,  134 

Kettles 150 

Kyparissia 29 

Labeling  Press .. .  157 

Labels 169 

Labor 15 

Labors  of  the  Year 124 

La  Mancha 14,  65 

Land  Scraper 105 

Land  Plaster 73 

Large  Black  Raisins 35 

Large  Red  Raisins 35 

Latitudes 60 

Leaching 73 

Leaf-hopper 42,  57,  98 

Leon 8 

Lepanto 23,  29 

Lerdo 45 

Levante 65 

Lever-press 155 

Lexias 9,  10,  15 

Ligudista 29 

Liniits  of  Raisin  Districts 60 

Lipari 9,  22,  36 

Literature 215,  216,  217,  218 

Lithgow 24 

Lixivium 9 

Location 12,  60 

Locke,  J 23 

London  Layers 15 

Longevity  of  Vines . 70 

Loose  Raisins 21,  158 

Lye. 19, 149 

Lye-dipped 9 

Lyeometer 34 

Machine-dried  Raisins •. 9 

Madeira 94 

Madera 45 

Magnesium  Chloride 73 


Malaga 7,  9,  12,  15,  91,  134,  176 

Malaga  (Cal.) 45 

Mai  Nero 64,  98 

Marking  out  Vineyard 105 

Manilla  Paper 158,  180 

Manuring 13 

Marbella 12 

McPherson  Bros 39,  55 

McPherson,  Robert 209 

Mediterranean  Basin 1 1 

Merced 45,  46,  182 

Merino 8 

Mesta 8 

Mildew 93 

Mirabelle  Vineyard 31 

Mission  Vines 98 

Missolonghi 29 

Modern  Raisin  Districts 1 1 

Modone 29 

Moisture 54,  66 

Morea 23,  27,  29 

Moryson,  Fynes 24 

Moors 7,  1 6,  22 

Moss,  Geo 216 

Murcia 8 

Musca 7 

Muscatels 6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  15,  43,  87 

Muscat  of  Alexandria. .  16,  50,  57,  87,  88 
Mussel  Slough 44 

Nailing 167 

Nathaligo 24 

Nauplia 29,  30 

Naxos 23 

Neglected  Vines 137 

Nice,  Climate  of 12 

Nisi 29 

Northern  Raisin  Districts 43 

North,J.W 39,52 

Off-stalk 21 

Oidium 93 

•Oleander 214 

Olive  Oil 150 

Olivo 16 

Olympia 29 

Ondara 16 

On-stalk 21 

Ontario 48,  52 

Orange  County 39,  52,  145,  146,  189 

Orland 44 

Packing-frames 156 

Packing-house 153,  205,  206,  207,  214 

Packing  Raisins 14,  20,  151,  160,  164 

Palermo 44 

Pantellaria 36 

Paper 158 

Pasas 22 

Pasture  Lands 8 

Patras 24,  29 

Pedreguer , 16 


222 


THE    RAISIN     INDUSTRY. 


PAGE 

Pergos 29 

Peronospora 95 

Petrasso 24 

Philanpelus 100 

Phoenician 16 

Pickers 137 

Picking ,135,  180 

Pierce,  N.  B 97 

Placer  County 43 

Planting 18,  25,  41,  53,  104 

Planting-bar 88,  130 

Plowing 114 

Plows 131 

Portugal 15 

Powdery  Mildew 93 

Preparing  Land 25 

Presses 155 

Prices 34,  38,  52,  58,  115,  170,  179 

Prodenia 101 

Production 22,  34 

Profits 51,  55,  58 

Pruning.. 13,  18,  26,  47,  124,  128,  131,  180 

Pupae loo 

Pylia 30 

Pylos 29 

Racemus^ 5 

Radiator 147 

Rain 12,  32,  55,  61 

Raisin  Districts 10 

Raisin  Grapes 87 

Raisin  Packers 214 

Raisins 5 

Raisins,  Import  of 178 

Raisin  Vineyards 30,  38,  104 

Raysins  of  Corauntz 23 

Reasons 5 

Red  Currants 91 

Redding 44 

Redlands 48,  202,  203,  204 

Red  Raisins 176,  177 

Red  Spider 100 

Retoria 16 

Reversing 141 

Reysin 5 

Ringing  the  Branches 27,  123 

Rinsing 150 

Ripeness 135 

Ripening 31,  33,  50 

Riverside .  .39,  48,  134,  199,  200,  201 

Roberts,  Lewis 22 

Ronda 12 

Roof-stacking 143 

Rooted  Vines 106,  112,  179 

Root-pruning 129 

Rosedale 45 

Rosine ." 5 

Ross,  Newton 51 

Rotterdam  Colony 182 

Royal,  Finest  Dehesa 15 

Quality  of  Raisins 18,  57,  79 


Saccharine n| 

Salt 73 

Salt  River  Valley 134 

Samos 31 

San  Bernardino 39,  48 

San  Diego 55,  192 

Sandy  Soils 70 

Sanger 45 

San  Joaquin  Valle}' 44,  181 

Santa  Ana 14,  52,  55,  134,  145,  i9'-> 

Santa  Maura 24,  29 

Scalding 19 

Scales 15^ 

Sea-breezes 31 

Secadero 19 

Second  Crop 136 

Seedless  Grapes 9,  90 

Seepage 84 

Selma ,45,  214 

Sequero 14 

Shasta  County 44 

Sheep's-foot 88,  130 

Slanting  the  Trays 142 

Smirna 9 

Smyrna  Raisins 10,  30,  176 

Soils.  ...12,  16,  25,  37,  41,  45,  49,  53,  56, 
60,  67,  68,  69,  70. 

Solano 41 

Solis 9,  10 

Spades 131 

Spring  Frost 64 

Spring  Rain 60,  62 

Stabler,  B.  G 88 

Stacking 142,  144 

Stanchio 31 

Stationers  Company   6 

Statistics 169 

Stems 136 

Stemming 151,  154,  158, 180 

Stevens,  W.  B 32,  35,  61 

Stock  for  Grafting 121 

Strentzel,  Dr.  J 138 

Subirrigation 83 

Subsoif 70 

Suckering 129 

Sulphates 73 

Sulphuring 47,  121,  131,  180 

Sultana  Raisins  ...  .6,  9, 10,  45,  135,  177 

Summer  Pruning 128 

Sun-dried  Raisins 9,  10 

Surface  Water 48 

Sutro,  Adolph 216 

Sutro  Library 216 

Sutter  County 43 

Sweat-boxes 148,  180 

Sweat-house 153 

Sweating 162 

Sweetwater  Valley 55,  59 

Taking-up 143 

Tehama  County 44 

Temperature 31,  48 


THE    RAISIN    INDUSTRY. 


223 


PAGE 

Terral 18 

Thermalito 44 

Thinning  the  Grapes 123 

Thompson  Seedless 10,  43,  91 

Tin  Boxes 158 

Tools 106,  130 

Tray-catcher 140 

Trays 20,  148,  156,  157 

Trieste 29 

Trifylla 30 

Trimming 167 

Trucks 131,  137,  157,  160 

Tulare 45,  214 

Turkish  Raisius 92 

Turning 140,  180 

Tying-over 122 

Tyra 31 

Uncinula 93,  94 

U  va  Alexandria 1 1 

Uva  Apiariae 7,  1 1 

Uva  Muscae 1 1 

Uva  Passa 26 

Uva  Zibeba i 

Valencia  Raisins.  .9,  10,  15,  21,  175,  176 
Varieties  of  Grapes 13,  35,  37 


Velez  Malaga 8 

Venetians 6 

Vergel 16 

Villa  Joyosa 15 

Vine  Plague 96 

Vostizza 24,  29 

Vourla 31,  176 

Ward,  C.  T 89 

Weed-cutter 1 16 

Weeks,  George  F 216 

Weighing 164 

West,  W.  B 216 

White  Corinths 45,  91 

White,  T.  C..  .38,  122,  156,  209,  210,  216 

Wickson,  E.  J 216 

Winds 65 

World's  Production 177 

Yerly 31,  176 

Yield 13,  55 

Yolo 41 

Yuba 43 

Zante 23,  29 

Zea 67 


Additional  Notes  for  1890. 


The  first  crop  suffered  considerably  from  mildew  and  climatic  conditions  unfavor- 
able to  the  setting  of  the  grapes.  The  second  crop,  however,  is  large  and  very 
good,  and  altogether  the  yield  is  a  satisfactory  one.  The  prices  have  ruled  higher 
than  before  and  raisins  in  sweatboxes  have  been  contracted  for  readily  at  from  5^ 
to  6J^  cents  per  pound  or  even  higher.  Wine  grapes  dried  here  sold  for  3  to  4 
cents  per  pound,  and  Malaga  and  Feherszagos  raisins  have  brought  from  4  to  5 
cents.  No  such  prosperous  year  has  before  been  experienced  by  the  raisin  men  of 
this  State,  and  reports  come  in  that  many  growers  are  realizing  from  $250  to  $450 
per  acre  from  vines  in  full  bearing. 

The  weather  all  through  the  summer  has  been  unusually  temperate  and  thus  very 
favorable  to  the  full  development  of  the  grapes,  and  so  far  the  drying  weather  has 
been  very  favorable  for  the  proper  curing  of  the  raisins.  Many  new  packing 
houses  have  been  established,  and  the  crop  is  being  better  cared  for  than  in  previous 
years.  The  health  and  general  condition  of  the  vines  is  better  than  it  was  last 
year  and  .the  vine  plague  is  less  virulent,  and  according  to  some  reports  even  on 
the  retrograde.  The  demand  for  the  raisin  product  has  never  been  as  large  as 
now  and  there  will  apparently  be  no  surplus  left  over,  as  the  demand  is  rapidly 
increasing.  The  above  refers  especially  to  the  central  part  of  the  State,  to  Merced, 
Fresno,  Tulare  and  Kern  counties,  where  the  prosperous  season  will  encourage 
increased  planting.  In  Southern  California  the  crop  will  be  fair  both  in  quality 
and  quantity.  In  El  Cajon  valley  it  is  reported  as  very  good,  and  as  being  one-hal  f 
larger  than  last  year.  Prices  here  ruled  to  begin  with  at  from  4^  to  5  cents  but 
rose  rapidly  to  5^  and  6  cents  in  sweatboxes. 

The  duty  on  raisins  has  this  fall  been  raised  from  2  cents  to  2><  cents  per  pound, 
which  insures  an  additional  profit  to  the  raisin  men. 


Rain-fall  of  iSSy-go. — The  rain-fall   of   1889-90  in   the   Central  and  Northern 
raisin  districts  of  California  was  as  follows  : 


Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

Total. 

Fresno.  ...  .  . 

T>.  IO 

I  .AT. 

3.80 

2.16 

•6s 

.92 

.20 

.25 

12.6o 

Tulare  

4.  17 

.41 

2.60 

2.75 

•74 

.22 

.20 

II  .92 

Kern  
Yolo  
Yuba  . 

2.04 
8.14 

S.Sy 

.22 

3-04 
-1.7-2 

1-75 
9.62 
9  .OI 

1.20 
6.36 
4-4-4 

.16 

3-69 
4.65 

.24 

3-35 
6.71 

iifo 

1.85 

.06 
2.21 
2.  SS 

5.67 

37-41 
38.81 

The  above  figures  are  from  the  "  tables  of  rainfall  in  the  principal  agricultural 
counties"  of  California,  compiled  and  published  by  Albert  Montpelier,  Esq., 
Manager  of  the  Grangers'  Bank,  San  Francisco,  but  no  report  is  made  of  the  rain- 
fall in  the  counties  of  San  Bernardino  and  San  Diego,  and  statistics  of  those 
counties  are  not  at  hand. 


Duty  on  Raisins. — The  revised  tariff  of  1890  makes  the  duty  on  imported 
raisins  2^2  cents  per  pound,  an  increase  of  ^  cent  on  the  old  schedule.  Currants, 
Zante  and  others,  are  now  on  the  free  list  and  pay  no  duty. 


BMSM  BOXES.  BUSH  TBtYS.  SWE»T  BOXES. 

KINGS  RIVER  LUMBER  Co., 

SANGER,  FRESNO  COUNTY,  CAL. 


San  Francisco  Office,  109  California  St.,  San  Francisco,  California. 


Manufacturer  of  and  Wholesale  and  Retail  Dealer  in 
all  kinds  of 

Boxes,  ioo[8,se§yiifiiis  and 


This  Company  has  at  Sanger  the  best  appointed   Box  Factory,  Door,  Sash  and 
Blind  Factory  and  Planing  Mill  in  the  State. 


Special  Mill  Work  of  all  kinds  Estimated  on  and  Furnished. 


ALL  KINDS  OF  BOXES  MANUFACTURED  AND  IN  ANY  QUANTITY 
RAISIN  AND  ORANGE  BOXES  A  SPECIALTY. 


This  Company  manufactures,  at  its  works  at  Sanger,  Raisin  Boxes  of  all  sizes 

from  the  very  best  of  Sugar  Pine,  cut  from  its  own  lands,  which 

for  quality  of  material,  perfection  of  workmanship 

and  printing  have  no  equal. 


THE  COMPANY  HAS  AT  AI,!,  TIMES  IN  STOCK  AND  FOR  SALE 

LUMBER  OF  ALL  DESCRIPTIONS,  CRAPE  STICKS,  POSTS,  SHINGLES, 
SHAKES,  PICKETS  AND  LATH. 


ORDERS  SOLICITED   AND   PROMPTLY   EXECUTED. 


WATER    TOWER  AT  LAKE  YOSEMITE. 


YOSEJWITE 


This  Colony  is  two  miles  from  Merced  City,  California.  Merced,  from  its  fine  fountains,  is  now 
known  as  "  The  Fountain  City."  It  is  the  county  seat  of  Merced  County.  The  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad,  a  transcontinental  line,  passes  through  this  place,  from  San  Francisco  to  New  York.  The 
Oakdale  Line  from  the  north  also  starts  from  Merced  City,  giving  direct  communication  by  rail  with 
Sacramento  Valley,  Oregon,  Washington,  and  all  points  north.  Merced  City  is  the  nearest  point  in  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley  to  the  great  Yosemite  Park,  and  commands  the  only  passable  railroad  route  to  this 
"  World's  Greatest  Wonder."  Merced  City  also  lies  in  a  direct  line  from  Yosemite,  through  Pacheco 
Pass,  in  the  Coast  Range,  to  Del  Monte,  on  the  Bay  of  Monterey.  These  great  natural  advantages  are 
now  being  developed  on  a  scale  commensurate  with  nature's  own  great  gifts.  The  largest  and  most 
costly  irrigating  canal  in  the  United  States  has  been  completed,  and  is  now  discharging  the  crystal 
snow  waters,  fresh  from  the  Yosemite  Falls,  into  Lake  Yosemite,  one  mile  from  this  colony.  Thus  we 
find  ourselves  in  the  possession  of  a  combination  of  nature  and  art,  which  present  advantages  in 
climate,  health,  water  privileges,  wealth  of  soil  and  their  productions  which  are  not  as  fully  possessed 
by  any  other  locality  in  California.  And,  as  an  enduring  crown  to  our  prosperity,  we  point  to  the  late 
Act  of  Congress  of  the  United  States  in  setting  apart  the  Yosemite  Park,  with  her  giant  Sequoia  and 
sugar-pine  forests,  insuring  and  perpetuating  the  annual  snow  and  rain  on  the  watershed  of  our  canal 
system.  The  Yosemite  Colony  contains  about  5,000  acres,  and  is  beautifully  situated  by  the  side  of 
Lake  Yosemite,  and  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  fine  Colony  of  Rotterdam.  "  The  Yosemite  "  was 
the  first  colony  subdivided  and  placed  on  the  market  after  the  perfection  of  our  irrigating  system, 
two  years  ago  ;  and  a  large  main  ditch  was  then  brought  by  the  proprietor  from  Lake  Yosemite  to  and 
through  these  lands.  Young  Orange  Groves,  Almonds,  Prunes  and  Apricots,  Figs,  Pomegranates, 
Peaches,  etc.,  etc.,  have  already  been  planted;  also  several  fine  young  Raisin  Vineyards,  of  only  two 
years'  growth,  which  this  autumn  produced  raisins  of  the  most  superior  quality.  The  soil  is  from  four 
to  twelve  feet  in  depth,  with  under  strata  of  heavy,  rich  clay,  which  will  always  insure  an  abundance 
of  moisture,  when  with  proper  irrigation.  These  lands  are  all  free  from  alkali,  and  about  one-half  of 
them  situated  on  the  rich,  alluvial  plain  ;  the  other  half  are  gently  rolling,  and  extend  into  the  red 
gravelly  soils,  so  much  prized  for  Olives,  Oranges,  Lemons,  Wine  Grapes  and  Strawberries  ,  while  the 
lower  levels  are  especially  prized  for  the  famous  Muscat  Raisin  Grape,  as  well  as  for  the  Prune, 
Almond,  Pear,  Apricot,  Alfalfa  and  Vegetables.  Merced  City,  situated  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from 
San  Francisco  by  rail,  —  one  hundred  miles  from  the  coast,  —  in  the  center  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  is 
also  the  exact  geographical  center  of  the  State—  north,  south,  east  and  west. 


We  are  not  offering  you  land  that  has  not  been  thoroughly  tested  to  produce  what  we  ailvcrti.se. 
Neither  are  we  offering  you  hog  wallows,  salt  grass  and  alkali  flats ;  but  we  offer  you  a  block  out  of  one  of 
the  richest  fields  of  California.  As  to  health,  we  challenge  the  whole  world  to  surpass  us.  Our  locality 
is  free  from  malaria ;  and  fogs  in  summer  and  autumn  are  unknown  in  this  dry  and  equable  climate. 
Not  only  is  our  locality  free  from  fog,  and  fanned  by  the  gentle  invigorating  sea-breezes  from  the  south 
and  southwesj,  but  we  are  protected  from  the  harsh,  desiccating  northwest  winds,  offering  a  retreat 
to  the  weak  aad  ailing;  and  its  rich  and  attractive  location  contributes  greatly  to  its  charms. 

For  scenic  beauty  it  has  but  few,  if  any,  superiors  in  California.  Standing  at  the  lake,  or  on  any 
other  elevated  point  on  the  Colony,  a  most  inspiring  panorama  is  presented  to  the  eye.  The  vision 
reaches  one  hundred  and  fifty  jniles  south  and  east,  and  takes  in  the  ever  snow-capped  Sierra  Nevada; 
thence  south  and  southwest  we  follow  the  long  blue  line  of  the  Coast  Range  to  the  Mt.  Diablo,  one 
hundred  and  thirty  miles  to  the  northwest,  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Francisco.  Looking  to  the  north  and 
east,  you  see  looming  up  the  grand  Sierra  Nevada,  with  its  mantles  of  perpetual  snow,  seemingly  so 
near  in  the  pure  air  that,  although  it  is  one  hundred  miles  to  the  summit,  strangers  are  almost  tempted 
to  quit  the  green  colony  fields  and  visit  them  as  an  afternoon  stroll. 

A  fine  school-house  has  been  erected  on  the  Colony,  at  a  cost  of  $5,000,  and  is  now  in  good  working 
order.  Trees  of  one  and  two  years'  growth  border  most  of  the  ave»ues,  including  Palms,  Locust, 
Olive,  Magnolia,  Eucalyptus,  Mulberry,  etc.,  etc. 

Under  our  irrigation  system  the  owner  of  the  land  purchases  water  from  the  Canal  Company 
which  is  filed  in  the  County  Recorder's  books,  and  is  then  inseparable  from  the  land,  and  is  always 
conveyed  as  a  part  of  the  realty. 

We  now  offer  you  this  land,  together  with  perpetual  water-right,  at  from  $150  to  $200  per  acre, 
according  to  quality  and  location.  No  land  will  be  deeded  to  any  persons  except  actual  settlers.  As 
inducements  to  families,  we  will  plow  and  prepare  the  land  ready  for  planting,  as  our  aim  is  to  settle 
these  lands  with  families.  Payments  may  be  made  in  installments  to  suit  purchasers.  We  make  the 
following  liberal  offer  to  those  who  do  not  feel  able  to  pay  cash  for  the  land :  The  purchaser  is  to  build 
and  occupy  a  neat  and  substantial  cottage;  also  build  all  needed  outhouses,  paint  or  whitewash  the 
same,  and  plant  the  land  to  such  trees  and  fruits  as  may  be  agreed  to  be  the  best.  This  done  the  first 
payment  will  be  deferred  for  five  years,  one-quarter  to  be  paid  annually  thereafter.  Said  sum  agreed 
to  be  paid  to  bear  eight  per  cent  interest  per  annum  from  date  of  sale.  Deed  will  be  given  purchaser 
when  he  builds  and  plants,  and  the  purchase  price  secured  by  mortgage  on  the  premises.  A  family 
with  from  $1,500  to  $2,000  to  make  their  improvements  can  settle  down  and  safely  wait  until  their  fruits 
or  raisin  vineyard  come  into  bearing.  The  whole  purchase  price  should  be  produced  from  the  lands 
the  fifth  year. 

For  those  who  have  not  experience,  or  are  desirous  of  avoiding  the  expense  of  team  and  tools,  we 
will  plant,  cultivate,  irrigate  and  care  for  their  orchard  and  vineyard  until  it  comes  into  bearing.  It 
will  be  worth  about  $25  per  acre  to  furnish  and  plant  the  first  year,  and  $10  to  $15  per  acre  each  year 
thereafter.  The  above  figures  mean  compensation  for  good,  first-class  work. 

We  have  already  some  fine  planted  tracts  for  sale,  embracing  Raisin  Vineyards,  that  will  come  into 
bearing  next  year  (1891),  also  young  Orange  Groves,  as  well  as  deciduous  Fruit  Orchards.  We  also  aim  to 
keep  a  vacant  cottage  on  the  Colony,  for  the  accommodation  of  each  newcomer  until  such  time  as  he 
can  build  on  a  lot  of  his  own  choice.  Deciduous  Fruit  Trees  can  be  planted  commencing  January  1st, 
and  as  late  as  the  1st  of  April.  Orange  Trees  in  March  and  April.  Grape  vines,  rooted  or  cuttings, 
should  be  planted  in  February  or  March.  Peaches  and  Apricots  will  bear  light  crops  the  third  year. 
Pears,  Almonds,  Figs  and  Oranges  will  begin  to  bear  the  fourth  year.  Raisins  begin  to  bear,  from  the 
cuttings,  in  the  third  year.  One  year's  time  is  gained  bj  planting  rooted  vines.  It  is  safe  to  expect  $50 
per  acre  the  third  year  from  rooted  vines,  and  $100  per  acre  the  fourth  year,  at  least,  gross  product. 
A  respectable  cottage  should  be  built,  with  from  four  to  five  rooms,  at  a  cost  of  from  $500  to  $800;  barn, 
$200.  One  pair  of  horses  and  harness,  $150 ;  milch  cow,  $25 ;  tools,  $25 ;  wood  is  high,  $7  per  cord ; 
flour,  $3  to  $4  per  barrel  of  200  Ibs. ;  beef,  from  6  cts.  to  10  cts.  per  Ib. ;  hens,  from  $5  to  $7  per  dozen  ; 
eggs,  from  25  cts.  to  50  cts.  per  dozen ;  building  lumber,  $25  per  M.  in  the  valley  or  farming  sections  of 
the  State.  Male  labor  on  the  farm,  $30  per  month,  except  four  or  five  months  in  the  summer,  when 
they  receive  $1.50  to  $2  per  day.  Female  labor  has  never  beeii  ample,  and  commands  from  $20  to  $30 
per  month.  Families  coming  out  here  can  bring  with  profit  all  clothing,  bed-clothing,  table  cutlery 
and  such  articles  as  would  not  be  bulky.  Large  furniture  or  farming  implements  will  not  bear 
transportation . 

The  vfery  favorable  conditions  existing  for  small  farming  in  this  rich  valley  of  California,  where 
water  can  be  obtained  to  render  crops  certain,  are  not  generally  known  in  the  East  and  Europe.  For 
instance,  our  breadstuff's  (wheat)  must  be  shipped  around  Cape  Horn  to  Liverpool  to  find  a  market. 
Beef  and  pork  the  same.  Our  wool  also  has  to  go  around  the  Horn  or  across  the  Continent.  The 
consequence  is  that  the  fruit  farmer  eats  the  cheapest  bread  and  beefsteak  of  any  people  in  the  world. 
Our  woolen  mills  are  able  to  furnish  the  finest  and  cheapest  clothing  worn.  Labor  is  high,  and 
everything  the  small  farmer  produces  is  high,  including  poultry,  vegetables  and  fruit,  and  will  always 
be  so.  The  big  farmer  can't  get  at  this  business  with  his  steam  engine  and  long  sickle.  We  can  close 
Europe  and  the  United  States  out  of  the  fruit-producing  business,  and  force  them  to  become  consumers. 
Why  ?  Because  of  the  certainty  of  our  crops,  and  because  we  have  the  whole  valley  for  a  drying  house. 

Address  or  call  upon  the  undersigned,  owners  and  proprietors, 

V.   C.  W.    HOOPER   &.   SON, 

MERCED,  MERCED  COUNTY,  CALIFORNIA. 


EISEN  &  STEWART, 

Estate  and  horticultural  [am  Holers, 

*  DELANO,  * 

COUNTY,     M     M     M     M 


WE  make  horticultural  lands  a  specialty,  and  offer  special 
bargains  in  the  Kern  and  Tulare  Irrigation  District, 
and  in  the  Poso  Irrigation  District.  These  lands  are  suited  to 
Olives,  Raisins,  Oranges,  other  fruits  and  alfalfa.  They  are 
now  cheap,  but  will  soon  rise  in  value,  and  become  as  high 
priced  as  any  in  the  State. 

We  also  attend  to  the  business  of  absent  owners,  and  we 
guaranteee  satisfaction. 
Correspondence  solicited. 

THE 

YOST  WRITING  MACHINE 


Acknowledged  by  Experts  to  be  The  Best. 

THE  YOST  is  full  of  New  and  Valuable  Improvements,  and 
is  guaranteed  to  do  as  represented. 


FOR  CATALOGUES,  TESTIMONIALS,   ETC.,  SEND  TO 

J.  P.  MIGHELL  &  CO. 

413  MONTGOMERY  STREET, 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  CALIFORNIA. 


MAKES    ABSOLUTELY 


SEEDLESS  *  RAISINS 


The  very  best  for  Culinary  Use! 


This  Grape  has  been  thoroughly  tested  in  California, 
having  been  grown  and  raisins  made  of  it,  in  Sutter  County, 
for  the  past  fifteen  years. 

It  is  far  superior  to  the  Sultana,  being  much  sweeter, 
a  heavier  cropper,  more  easily  dried,  and  ripens  earlier. 

For  rooted  vines,  guaranteed  true  to  name,  address, 

B.  Q.  STABLEB, 

TUBA  CITY, 

Sutter  County,  California. 

Prices  reasonable ;    given  on  application  for  both  one  and  two-year  old  rooted 
vines.    Will  also  send  sample  of  raisins,  if  desired. 


Described    by    Prof.    Kiscii. 

In  a  communication  to  California,  a  Journal  of  Rural  Industry,  May  No.,  1890,  entitled  "With  the 
Fruit  Growers  in  Sutter  County,"  Prof.  Eisen  thus  refers  to  Mr.  Stabler,  and  his  work :  "Mr.  B.  G. 
Stabler  makes  a  specialty  of  dried  peaches  and  seedless  raisins,  and  has  succeeded  well  with  both. 
The  principal  raisin-grape  of  this  vicinity  is  the  little-known  seedless  grape,  I,ady  Decoverly,  here 
known  as  the  Thompson  Seedless,  he  being  the  first  to  grow  it.  Years  ago,  about  1872,  this  gen- 
tleman saw  advertised  in  an  Eastern  Catalogue  a  seedless  grape,  said  to  come  from  Constantinople, 
and  was  called  the  I/ady  Decoverly.  It  proved  to  be  very  different  from  the  common  Sultana,  being 
of  yellow  color,  and  of  oblong  shape.  It  is  certainly  strange  that  this  singular  variety  of  grape 
should  have  existed  here  so  many  years,  and  failed  to  attract  general  attention.  It  is  an  enormous 
bearer,  heavier  even  than  the  Sultana,  and  ripens  early  in  August.  It  makes  very  choice  raisins 
for  cooking  purposes.  The  color  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Muscatel,  and  makes  a  raisin  of  beautiful 
color.  Among  other  novelties  in  the  way  of  fruit,  Mr.  Stabler  has  a  Chance  Seedling  Apricot, 
which  promises  to  be  something  extraordinary.  It  is  not  yet  in  bearing,  *  *  *  but  think  of 
apricot  leaves  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  limbs  many  times  as  long  and  strong  as  those  of 
ordinary  apricot  trees,"  etc. 


FRESNO  EMERGED 


COUNTY  LANDS 


TO  RENT  AND  FOR  SALE. 


ACRES  OF  WHEAT  AND  SUGAR-BEET  LAND  in  the  above 
counties  to  rent  for  a  term  of  years;  also  10O,OOO  acres  of  fine 
Raisin,  Fruit,  Alfalfa  and  Sugar-Beet  Land,  with  water  for  irrigation,  for  sale  in 
tracts  of  from  twenty  acres  to  large  tracts  suitable  for  colony  purposes. 

For  particulars  apply  to 

IE.    IB.    IFIBIR/IR/IIN", 

4O2  Kearny  Street, 

SAN    FRANCISCO. 

FRESNO  AGRICULTURAL  WORKS 

IAHUFACTUEEES  OF 

Raisin  •  • 


ILL  ENDS  OP 

Vineyard  Tools 

LEVELING  and 
CANAL  SCRAPERS. 

SEND    FOR 

Descriptive 

Catalogue. 


JAMES  PORXEOUS,    FRESNO,  CAL 


GUSTAV  EISEN, 

HORTICULTURAL  LAND  AND  RAISIN  EXPERT. 


•  • 


I  have  had  twenty  years  of  experience  in  fruit  growing, 
raisin-grape  growing,  raisin  making,  and  in  other  horti- 
cultural industries,  in  California,  Central  America,  Mexico 
and  Europe.  I  make  it  a  specialty  to  assist  and  advise 
those  engaged  in  horticultural  pursuits.  Whether  you  wish 
to  select'land  or  plant  it  to  vines  and  trees,  whether  you  are 
a  capitalist,  the  member  of  a  syndicate  or  a  farmer,  my 
services  will  be  a  thousand  times  more  valuable  to  you  than 
the  reasonable  charge  I  make  for  them.  If  you  are  not 
acquainted  with  land,  soil,  climate  or  the  profits  of  the  hor- 
ticultural industry  you  intend  to-  engage  in,  you  will  find  it 
to  your  advantage  to  engage  me  to  make  you  thorough  and 
truthful  reports. 

All  matters  strictly  confidential  and  charges  reasonable. 

Address, 

GUSTAV    EISEN, 

CALIFORNIA  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES, 

San  Francisco. 


PUBLISHED    BY 


ILLUSTRATED  IN 
COLORS 


H.  S.  CROCKER  5.  COMPflNY 


215  BUSH  STREET,  SAN  FRANCISCO 


THE  FINEST 
HOLIDAY  GIFT 


It  has  no  rival.    Each  book   is  wrapped  in  heavy 
paper  and  enclosed  in  a  specially  made  box,  suitable 
for  presentation  to  friends.     For  shipment  East,  we 
provide  an  extra  heavy  box.    Size  of  book,  12x16  inches. 


Full  Morocco,  or  Undressed  Kid -    .    •  $15.00 

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Mboleeale  Stationers 
printers,  Xitbograpbers  anb  Boofcbinbers 

A  FULL  AND  ELEGANT  LINE  OF 

FRUIT  AND   RAISIN    LABELS  AND   PAPERS   ALWAYS  ON    HAND 


OUR  SPECIALTIES  ARE 


Incorporation  Outfits        Bank  Supplies 
Map  and  Pamphlet  Printing 
Stationery  Outfits 


Copperplate  Engraving 
of  Visiting-Cards  and 
Wedding  Invitations 


CORRESPONDENCE    SOLICITED 


THE  FRUIT  REGION  OF  MERCED. 


THE  fruit  lands  now  offered  for  settlement  by  the  Crocker 
Land  and  Water  Company  are  situated  in  the  very  center  of  Cali- 
fornia. Besides  being  so  favorably  located,  they  offer  advantages 
which  are  not  possessed  by  any  other  lands  in  the  State.  The 
fifty-five  thousand  acres,  which  are  now  for  the  first  time  subdi- 
vided, consist  of  virgin  pasture  and  wheat  lands,  which  have 
become  too  valuable  to  be  devoted  to  their  former  use.  They 
are  now  being  irrigated  by  the  most  expensive  and  magnificen; 
irrigation  system  on  the  continent,  by  a  canal  capable  of  carrying 
4,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second,  and  by  the  artificial  lake 
Yosemite,  the  most  extensive  irrigation  reservoir  ever  built  in 
America.  The  water  fiom  this  system  is  abundant  and  continu- 
ous ;  it  comes  from  the  snow-capped  Sierra,  from  the  Falls  of  the 
Yosemite,  and  will  suffice  to  irrigate  and  fertilize  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  acres  more  than  are  offered  for  sale. 

These  fruit  and  horticultural  lands  are  situated  in  the  warm 
belt  of  the  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  protected  by  sheltering 
hills,  traversed  by  natural  creeks  and  surrounded  by  the  grandest 
scenery  known  to  man.  The  famous  Yosemite  is  almost  within 
sight,  and  the  high -peaked  Sierra  can  be  reached  in  a  day's 
journey.  The  Coast  Range,  with  Mt.  Diablo,  is  in  full  view,  while 
the  fresh  breezes  from  the  San  Pablo  Bay  temper  the  climate,  and 
contribute  to  make  it  one  of  the  finest,  most  salubrious  and  most 
enjoyable  in  the  world.  Through  the  irrigation  water  always  at 
the  command  of  the  horticulturist,  our  lands  are  being  trans- 
formed into  beautiful  orchards,  vineyards  and  meadows.  The 
peach,  the  prune,  the  apricot,  the  pear  and  the  raisin-grape  are 


made  to  flourish,  and  the  olive  to  produce  its  valuable  oil,  the 
orange  and  the  lemon  their  golden  fruit.  The  colonies  already 
established  are  situated  in  the  thermal  belt  of  the  Sierra,  in  the 
finest  citrus  region  of  the  State,  in  a  district  equal  to  the  best 
anywhere,  and  in  a  territory  remarkable  for  its  earliness  and 
productiveness.  Every  variety  of  temperate  and  semi-tropical 
fruit  is  now  growing  within  sight  of  the  colonies, — the  almond, 
the  olive  and  orange  uj>on  the  more  elevated  land  ;  the  peach, 
the  prune,  the  apricot,  the  pear  and  the  raisin-grape  upon  that 
of  a  more  alluvial  nature.  The  Rotterdam  Colony  contains 
now  over  a  hundred  settlers  from  Holland  ;  other  colonies  are 
being  established  by  English  and  American  farmers,  by  doctors, 
lawyers  and  professional  men  of  every  station  in  life.  The 
people  whom  we  invite,  and  who  have  responded  to  our  call, 
are  the  most  desirable,  the  most  intelligent,  the  most  ener- 
getic and  the  most  refined  classes.  They  are  now  building 
up  horticultural  communities  of  the  most  prosperous  nature. 

The  lands  we  offer  are  situated  six  hours  by  railroad  from 
San  Francisco.  They  are  traversed  by  two  railroads,  and  the 
principal  colony  is  only  four  miles  from  Merced  City,  the  county 
seat,  while  some  of  our  land  joins,  and  actually  surrounds,  that 
town.  Our  prices  are  low,  and  our  terms  very  reasonable.  We 
offer  various  grades  of  land,  all  eminently  suitable  for  the  highest 
state  of  horticulture,  at  prices  ranging  from  $75  to  $175  per  acre, 
with  water. 

For  particulars  address  the 

W  *ff  ater  Conpy, 

BJf  A  J    | 

MERCED, 

County,  Cal. 


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